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Abstract
This study investigated the prevalence and density of predatory insect species in cotton fields across the provinces of Diyarbakır, Şanlıurfa, and Mardin in the Southeastern Anatolia Region from 2021 to 2024. Surveys were conducted biweekly using a D-vac device. A total of 28 predatory insect species were identified, including 9 species from the Coccinellidae family (Coleoptera), 7 from Geocoridae, 4 from Miridae, 3 from Nabidae, 2 from Anthocoridae, and Reduviidae species (Hemiptera), 1 species from Chrysopidae (Neuroptera), and 1 species from Thysanoptera. The most prevalent species varied by location and year: In Diyarbakır, Chrysopidae dominated throughout the study. In Şanlıurfa, Chrysopidae were the most common in 2021 and 2023–2024, while Geocoridae prevailed in 2022. In Mardin, Chrysopidae remained dominant for the first three years, but Miridae became the most prevalent in 2024. The most abundant beneficial insect species in 2021 were Anthocoridae in Diyarbakır (mean density: 5.51) and Chrysoperla carnea (Chrysopidae) in Şanlıurfa (7.60) and Mardin (7.51). In 2022, Cicadellidae species showed the highest densities in Diyarbakır (124.74), Şanlıurfa (114.78), and Mardin (65.33). By 2023, C. carnea (Chrysopidae) was dominant in Diyarbakır (3.34) and Şanlıurfa (4.51), whereas Geocoris spp. (Geocoridae) led in Mardin (5.88). In 2024, Coccinellidae species were most abundant in Diyarbakır (3.34) and Şanlıurfa (4.51), while Anthocoridae dominated in Mardin (7.31). Co-occurrence rates of multiple predatory species were highest in Mardin in 2021 (48.72%, 2 species) and 2023 (41.67%, 3 species), whereas Şanlıurfa had the highest rates in 2022 (34%, 3 species) and 2024 (46.81%, 2 species).
Keywords: Predatory Insects; Cotton Fields; Biodiversity; Biological Control; Southeastern Anatolia
Introduction
Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) is a strategic agricultural crop that underpins the global textile industry, with worldwide production exceeding 25 million tons [1]. As the primary raw material for textile products, cotton serves as a crucial link between the agricultural and industrial sectors. While cotton fibers are processed in textile factories, the agricultural sector provides the necessary resources for cotton cultivation [2]. The leading countries in global cotton production include India, China, the United States, Brazil, Pakistan, and Uzbekistan, respectively. Turkey ranks as the 7th largest cotton producer worldwide. In our country, the Southeastern Anatolia Region holds the top position, accounting for 60.6% of the cotton cultivation area and 61.3% of seed cotton production [3].
Cotton, which grows primarily in hot and semi-arid climates, faces significant sustainability challenges due to its high water and pesticide demands. Insect pests are responsible for 20-50% yield losses in cotton production, leading to annual economic damages exceeding 5 billion US dollars [4]. In areas where cotton is produced, sap-sucking pests such as aphids, mites, thrips, and leafhoppers, along with damaging insects like bollworm, spiny bollworm, and Lygus species that inflict serious harm on reproductive organs, present considerable challenges [5]. The management of these factors that affect yield and quality often depends on the use of pesticides. These pesticides, which can create significant problems for human and environmental health, may lead to both direct and indirect negative side effects on predatory insects found in cotton fields [6,7]. Pests such as aphids (Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae)), whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci (Genn.) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)), and bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)) have developed resistance to pesticides, making chemical control ineffective [8]. Consequently, biological control strategies have emerged as a crucial element of sustainable cotton agriculture.
Various studies conducted in Turkey have reported the widespread presence of predator species such as Chrysoperla carnea Steph. (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), Orius spp. (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae), Nabis spp. (Hemiptera: Nabidae), Deraeocoris spp. (Heteroptera: Miridae), Geocoris spp. (Hemiptera: Geocoridae), Campylomma divesicornis Reut. (Heteroptera: Miridae), and Aelothrips collaris (Priesner) (Thysanoptera: Aeolothripidae) in cotton production areas [9-12]. Studies carried out in Diyarbakır province have identified species such as Nabis pseudoferus Rem. (Hemiptera: Nabidae), Nabis rugosus L. (Hemiptera: Nabidae), Geocoris pallidipennis (C.) (Hemiptera: Geocoridae), and Chrysoperla carnea (Steph.). In another study, Nabis pseudoferus orientarius (Remane, 1962), Nabis punctatus, and Nabis ferus (Hemiptera: Nabidae) were detected in cotton fields in Şanlıurfa, Diyarbakır, and Mardin provinces [13]. Additionally, some researchers have identified Geocoris spp. in their studies [14,15].
Predatory insects are important natural enemies that feed on adults, larvae, and eggs of soft-bodied pests such as leafworms, aphids, mites, and moths commonly found in cotton fields. These predators serve as key agents in biological control programs. For instance, Chrysoperla carnea larvae can consume 50-60 aphids per day, effectively suppressing pest populations [16]. Similarly, Geocoris punctipes (Say, 1832) (Hemiptera: Geocoridae) has demonstrated significant efficacy with predation rates reaching up to 70% on bollworm eggs [17]. However, the effectiveness of predatory insects shows regional variations depending on factors such as species diversity, habitat suitability, and agricultural practices. For example, while Coccinellid species dominate in Indian cotton fields [18], hemipteran predators like Orius insidiosus (Say, 1832) (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) are more prominent in U.S. cotton production systems [19]. This study was conducted in cotton production areas of Diyarbakır, Şanlıurfa, and Mardin provinces in Turkey’s Southeastern Anatolia Region between 2021 and 2024. The research aimed to determine the density and prevalence of natural enemies that are significant for biological control. The findings obtained from this study are expected to contribute to future biological control efforts.
Materials and Methods
Determination of Predatory Species Prevalence and Density
Study Area and Sampling Methodology: This study was conducted in cotton production areas of Diyarbakır, Şanlıurfa, and Mardin provinces between 2021 and 2024. Sampling was designed to represent each area, ensuring coverage of at least 1% of the total cotton cultivation area in each district. Sampling was carried out at two-week intervals from cotton planting (April- May) until harvest.
Field Collection Protocol: Predator species were sampled using a D-Vac suction device to determine their prevalence and density. Collections were made: At 20-25 m inside field borders, along diagonal transects, from three different points per field, and with 2-minute suction periods per row. Specimens were collected using a 30 cm × 45 cm mesh bag with a rubber rim, labeled in the field, and transported to the laboratory [13-20].
Laboratory Procedures: Samples were examined under a stereomicroscope for the identification of predators. Taxonomic verification was performed by: Hemiptera: Dr. Gülten YAZICI (Ankara Plant Protection Research Institute), Coccinellidae: Dr. Derya ŞENAL (Şeyh Edebali University, Bilecik), and Neuroptera: Prof. Dr. Ali SATAR (Dicle University, Diyarbakır).
Data Analysis: Individual counts from surveys in Şanlıurfa, Diyarbakır, and Mardin were recorded. Identified predator species were analyzed for their prevalence, density, and correlations with dominant pest species.
Results
As a result of this four-year study (2021-2024) conducted in cotton fields in the provinces of Diyarbakır, Şanlıurfa, and Mardin in the Southeastern Anatolia Region, the identified predatory insects and their species are presented in (Table 1). Accordingly, 9 species from the family Coccinellidae (Order: Coleoptera), 7 species from the family Geocoridae (Order: Hemiptera), 4 species from the family Miridae, 3 species from the family Nabidae, 2 species from the family Anthocoridae, and 1 species, Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens), from the family Chrysopidae (Order: Neuroptera), were identified. Other predatory insects identified at the family level included species from Thysanoptera (Aeolothripidae: Aeolothrips) and Reduviidae. Overall, a total of 28 predatory insect species belonging to 8 families across 4 different insect orders were identified in the surveyed cotton production areas. As a result of the survey studies conducted in cotton fields, the predatory insect species identified in the provinces of Diyarbakır, Şanlıurfa, and Mardin between 2021 and 2024 were evaluated based on their families, prevalence, total individual counts, and their proportions relative to the total number of predators collected, with annual variations determined by province. Accordingly, the data obtained from the survey studies carried out in Diyarbakır between 2021 and 2024 are presented in (Table 2). Throughout the four-year study period, the most frequently observed species belonged to the family Chrysopidae, followed by Anthocoridae and Geocoridae. When examining the proportion of each identified species within the total predators: In 2021, the highest value was recorded for the Anthocoridae family (33.94%), In 2022, for Miridae (Campylomma) (23.81%), In 2023, for Chrysopidae (C. carnea) (23.04%), In 2024, again for Chrysopidae (C. carnea) (22.43%).
The data on the average numbers of predators collected during surveys in Diyarbakır province are presented graphically in (Figure 1). Accordingly, in Diyarbakır province in 2021, the highest mean values were recorded for Orius spp. (9.119) and C. carnea (8.50) in July. In 2022, the highest mean values were observed for Campylomma spp. (12.50) and Nabis spp. (10.75) in September. In 2023, the highest mean values were recorded for Coccinella (10.00) and C. carnea (7.00) in June. In 2024, the highest mean values were observed for Coccinella (17.33) and Geocoris spp. (8.67) in June; however, Coccinella showed a significant decline in subsequent months (Figure 1). The data on prevalence, individual counts, and proportions obtained from surveys conducted in Şanlıurfa province between 2021-2024 are presented in (Table 3). According to the results, in 2021, the most common species belonged to the Chrysopidae family, followed by Anthocoridae and Geocoridae species. In 2022, the most common species were from Geocoridae, followed by Chrysopidae and Anthocoridae. In both 2023 and 2024, the most common species were from the Chrysopidae family, followed by the Geocoridae family. When examining the proportion of beneficial species identified in Şanlıurfa province within the total predators, the Chrysopidae family showed the highest ratio at 48.31% in 2021, Geocoridae at 30.72% in 2022, Chrysopidae again at 37.18% in 2023, and Chrysopidae maintained the highest ratio at 39.33% in 2024.
The data on the average numbers of predators collected during field surveys in Şanlıurfa province are presented graphically in (Figure 2). The results show that in 2021, Deraeocoris spp. (22.67) and Geocoris spp. (10.33) reached their highest mean values in June. In 2022, Chrysoperla carnea and Geocoris spp. were the dominant predators with mean values of 14.00 in September. During 2023, Chrysoperla carnea (18.80) and Coccinellids (9.20) showed their peak mean values in September. In 2024, the highest mean values were recorded for Coccinella (14.67) in June and Chrysoperla carnea (18.75) in October (Figure 2). The data on prevalence, individual counts, and ratios obtained from surveys conducted in Mardin province between 2021 and 2024 are presented in (Table 4). During the first three years of the study, the most frequently observed species belonged to the Chrysopidae family, followed by species from the Miridae family in 2024. When examining the proportion of beneficial species identified in the study within the total predator population, the Chrysopidae family showed the highest percentage at 43.73% in 2021, followed by Geocoridae at 37.95% in 2022 and 29.68% in 2023, while in 2024, the Anthocoridae family again had the highest ratio at 32.99%.
The data on the average numbers of predators obtained from surveys in Mardin province are presented graphically in (Figure 3). Accordingly, in Mardin province in 2021, Geocoris spp. (14.50) In July and C. carnea (11.00) in June were the predatory insects with the highest mean values. In 2022, Deraeocoris spp. (24.00) and C. carnea (23.00) in June, and Geocoris spp. (21.50) In August were the predators with the highest mean values. In 2023, Geocoris spp. (12.67) In August and C. carnea (12.00) in June had the highest mean values. In 2024, Orius spp. (33.00) and C. carnea (10.50) in August were the predators with the highest mean values (Figure 3).
The analytical data on the relative densities of predatory insects identified during survey studies conducted in cotton production areas of Diyarbakır, Şanlıurfa, and Mardin provinces between 2021-2024, categorized by family across different sampling sites, are presented in (Table 5). According to (Table 5), in 2021, the most abundant beneficial insect species in Diyarbakır province was Anthocoridae, with a mean value of 5.51. In contrast, in Şanlıurfa and Mardin provinces, C. carnea (Chrysopidae) exhibited the highest densities, with mean values of 7.60 and 7.51, respectively. The most prevalent pest species in 2021 was Cicadellidae, with values of 157.32, 104.77, and 68.79 in Diyarbakır, Şanlıurfa, and Mardin provinces, respectively (Table 5). In 2022, the most abundant beneficial insects were Campylomma spp. (Miridae) with a mean of 5.00 in Diyarbakır, and Geocoris spp. (Geocoridae) with means of 6.18 and 7.00 in Şanlıurfa and Mardin, respectively. The dominant pest species remained Cicadellidae, with values of 124.74, 114.78, and 65.33 across the three provinces (Table 5). In 2023, C. carnea (Chrysopidae) was the most abundant in Diyarbakır (3.34) and Şanlıurfa (4.51), while Geocoris spp. (Geocoridae) dominated in Mardin (5.88). In 2024, Coccinellidae species were most prevalent in Diyarbakır (3.34) and Şanlıurfa (4.51), and Anthocoridae species showed the highest density in Mardin (7.31). The major pest species included Cicadellidae in Diyarbakır (147.36) and Mardin (269.69), and Whiteflies (Aleyrodoidae) in Şanlıurfa (196.06) (Table 5).
The percentage values for the co-occurrence rates of predatory insects identified during surveys conducted in the provinces of Diyarbakır, Şanlıurfa, and Mardin between 2021 and 2024 are presented in Table 6. According to the results, in 2021, the highest simultaneous co-occurrence rates were observed at 26.67% (2 predators) in Diyarbakır, 38.33% (3 predators) in Şanlıurfa, and 48.72% (2 predators) in Mardin. In 2022, Diyarbakır exhibited a co-occurrence rate of 28.26%, while Şanlıurfa had 34.00% (3 predators), and Mardin recorded 33.33% (2 predators). For 2023, the co-occurrence rates were 38.71% (3 predators) in Diyarbakır, 29.41% (2 predators) in Şanlıurfa, and 41.67% (3 predators) in Mardin. In 2024, the co-occurrence rates were 31.25% (4 predators) in Diyarbakır, 46.81% (2 predators) in Şanlıurfa, while Mardin recorded equal values of 23.00% for both single and twopredator co-occurrences (Table 6).
According to the evaluation of the simultaneous occurrence rates of predatory insects by province (Table 6), it was observed that Diyarbakır, particularly in the years 2021 and 2023, had higher simultaneous occurrence rates of high predatory insect counts (e.g., 2-4 predators) compared to other provinces (for example, in 2021, 26.67% for 2 predators and 25.33% for 3 predators; in 2023, 38.71% for 3 predators). However, in 2024, these rates showed a significant decline, especially with lower rates recorded for higher predator counts. This situation may indicate a decrease in predator populations due to environmental factors, pesticide applications, or changes in agricultural practices in the region. Şanlıurfa exhibited a generally stable distribution in terms of predatory insect diversity throughout the four years. Notably, in 2024, the simultaneous occurrence rate of the two predatory insects reached 46.81%, the highest value among all other provinces and years. This may suggest that Şanlıurfa provides suitable living conditions for predator populations, possibly due to factors such as more intensive irrigated farmland, plant diversity, and second-crop cultivation. Additionally, the high rate of 20.00% for 1 predator in 2021 was also noteworthy. Mardin generally had lower and less diverse simultaneous occurrence rates of predatory insects compared to the other two provinces. In 2021, significant rates were observed only for 2 and 3 predators, while in other years and predator counts, the distribution was sparser. The rates of 5.56% for 0 predators in 2022 and 7.69% for 0 predators in 2024 indicate periods of very low predatory activity. However, in 2024, notable rates such as 23.08% for 1 predator and 15.38% for 6 predators were recorded, suggesting localized increases in certain periods. This text provides an overall assessment of predatory insect occurrences across Diyarbakır, Şanlıurfa, and Mardin, highlighting temporal and regional variations in predator populations.
An analysis of the year-by-year variations in the data obtained from the study reveals distinct patterns in predator distribution across the provinces. In 2021, Diyarbakır and Şanlıurfa exhibited relatively high and diverse occurrence rates for 1-4 predator species, while Mardin showed a more restricted distribution. The following year (2022) witnessed a general upward trend in predator numbers across all provinces, with particularly notable occurrence rates for 2-4 predators in Diyarbakır and Şanlıurfa. By 2023, Diyarbakır and Mardin experienced significant increases in 3-4 predator counts, whereas Şanlıurfa maintained a more balanced distribution pattern. The year 2024 presented a divergent scenario: while Şanlıurfa continued to demonstrate rising predator activity, Diyarbakır saw declines, particularly in higher predator counts. Meanwhile, Mardin showed increased occurrences of lower predator numbers while higher predator counts became increasingly rare. These data clearly demonstrate that predator insect populations in cotton ecosystems exhibit variations between provinces and across years. The declining trends observed in Diyarbakır necessitate a detailed examination of regional factors. The relatively stable and high rates in Şanlıurfa suggest that agroecological practices or environmental conditions in this province may be more favorable for predator populations. These findings are of great importance for the development and implementation of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies. To protect and enhance natural enemy populations in cotton fields, steps such as promoting the use of less harmful pesticides, expanding biological control methods, creating suitable habitats for predator insects (for example, flowering plants, weed control), and developing specific strategies considering inter-regional ecological differences could be taken.
Discussion
The study identified a total of 28 predator species belonging to 8 families across 4 orders. The Coccinellidae family (Hippodamia variegata (Goeze, 1777), Coccinella septempunctata (Linnaeus, 1758), etc.) from the Coleoptera order, along with the Geocoridae (G. megacephalus, G. pallidipennis) and Nabidae (N. pseudoferus orientarius) families from the Hemiptera order, emerged as the dominant predator groups in the region. Chrysoperla carnea from the Neuroptera order showed high prevalence across all provinces (Tables 2-4). This diversity is particularly noteworthy when compared to 19 species reported in India [18] and 22 species in the USA [19]. The presence of 7 species from the Geocoridae family especially reflects this family’s ecological adaptation in the Mediterranean basin [14]. In contrast, Geocoris species in the USA exhibit less diversity but occur in higher densities [17]. In Diyarbakır, the Anthocoridae family (33.94%) showed the highest proportion in 2021, followed by Miridae (23.81%) in 2022, Chrysopidae (23.04%) in 2023, and Chrysopidae again (22.43%) in 2024. In Şanlıurfa, Chrysopidae dominated in 2021 (48.31%), 2023 (37.18%), and 2024 (39.33%), while Geocoridae (30.72%) was predominant in 2022. In Mardin, Chrysopidae (43.73%) led in 2021, Geocoridae in both 2022 (37.95%) and 2023 (29.68%), and Anthocoridae (32.99%) became prominent in 2024 (Tables 2-4). These results demonstrate that predator dynamics in the region vary both geographically and temporally. Similarly, [15] reported that Geocoris species are abundant in the Mediterranean region. However, in this study, the dominance of Geocoridae in Şanlıurfa in 2022 may be interpreted as a result of climatic factors and increasing pest populations.
The Chrysopidae family emerged as the most prevalent predator group across all provinces (reaching 48.31% in Şanlıurfa). These findings align with observations from Spanish cotton fields where Chrysoperla carnea showed 35-40% dominance [21]. However, in Brazil, Chrysopidae’s prevalence remains below 15%, with nthocoridae species being more prominent instead [16]. These variations demonstrate how climate and agricultural practices shape predator distribution patterns.
A negative correlation was observed between pest density and predator populations. For instance, despite higher Aleyrodoidae (whitefly) populations in Şanlıurfa during 2023-2024, Coccinellidae species remained limited in density (Table 5). This suggests an imbalance between whiteflies’ rapid reproductive capacity and predators’ adaptation period. Conversely, in Mardin during 2022, a significant relationship emerged between Geocoridae density and declining Cicadellidae pests. This finding aligns with previous studies demonstrating Geocoris species’ effectiveness against sapsucking pests [14]. A similar pattern was observed in Pakistan, where Geocoris species proved inadequate against increasing Bemisia tabaci populations [22]. The negative correlation between Geocoridae density and Cicadellidae pest decline in Mardin (2022) further confirms Geocoris species’ efficacy against leaf-sucking pests.
The study revealed that predator species co-occurred in combinations of 2-3 species at a rate approaching 50% (Table 6). In Diyarbakır, the high frequency of 4 or more species coexisting (29-52%) suggests this province’s habitat diversity is particularly favorable for predators. However, the lower rates observed in Şanlıurfa and Mardin may be associated with factors such as monoculture farming or pesticide use. These findings align with Australian cotton field studies demonstrating that multiple predator presence enhances pest control by 40% [23]. The prevalence of monoculture in Şanlıurfa appears to have limited predator diversity. In this context, Diyarbakır’s high biodiversity shows promising potential for integrated pest management.
Conclusion
This study comprehensively presents the prevalence, density, and co-occurrence dynamics of the predator insect complex in three key cotton-producing provinces of Turkey’s Southeastern Anatolia Region Diyarbakır, Şanlıurfa, and Mardin-between 2021 and 2024. The findings provide critical insights into the role of natural enemies in cotton ecosystems, their population fluctuations, and the future of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies in the region. Throughout the study, Chrysoperla carnea (Chrysopidae), Orius spp. (Anthocoridae), and Geocoris spp. (Geocoridae) were identified as the most prevalent and abundant species forming the core of the predator complex in cotton fields. These species play a crucial role in the natural control of cotton pests. While Diyarbakır initially exhibited relatively high predator prevalence, density, and co-occurrence rates, a decline in the abundance and co-occurrence of certain key predator species (e.g., Orius spp.) was observed, particularly toward 2024. In contrast, Coccinellidae populations increased. In Şanlıurfa, despite an overall downward trend in total predator abundance, Coccinellidae species showed a significant rise in prevalence and density. However, the sharp decline in Orius spp. density correlated with an increase in Bemisia tabaci populations, suggesting a weakening of natural control mechanisms. Mardin experienced the most pronounced decline in total predator abundance among the three provinces, with a dramatic reduction in C. carnea density. Conversely, increases were recorded in Orius spp. and Campylomma spp. densities, indicating a notable shift in the predator complex structure. The highest surges in pest populations (particularly Cicadellidae and Bemisia tabaci) in Mardin were associated with the overall decline in predator populations.
When examining the relationship between the most abundant pest insects and the identified predators, the observed yearly increases in key pest population densities, such as Bemisia tabaci and Cicadellidae, coincided with declines in essential predators (e.g., Orius spp. in Diyarbakır and Şanlıurfa, and C. carnea in Mardin). This suggests that reductions or shifts in natural enemy populations may lead to pest outbreaks. The regional disparities highlight the influence of environmental factors, such as localized farming practices, climatic conditions, and pesticide usage patterns, on predator populations. In conclusion, this study reaffirms the intricate structure of natural enemies in cotton ecosystems and their indispensable role in pest control. The acquired knowledge will form the foundation for a more balanced, ecological, and sustainable pest management approach in the region’s cotton production.
Acknowledgement
For predator identification, the specimens were examined under a stereomicroscope. Taxonomic verification was conducted by: Hemiptera: Dr. Gülten YAZICI (Ankara Plant Protection Research Institute), Coccinellidae: Dr. Derya ŞENAL (Şeyh Edebali University, Bilecik), and Neuroptera: Prof. Dr. Ali SATAR (Dicle University, Diyarbakır). This study utilized the facilities of the Diyarbakır Plant Protection Research Institute, which is affiliated with the General Directorate of Agricultural Research and Policies of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry of the Republic of Turkey. We would like to thank them.
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