Abstract

This paper explores the emergence, organization, and socio-political context of the Panga Boys gang in Mombasa, Kenya, and its far-reaching impact on urban security, youth development, and community stability. Drawing on qualitative fieldwork conducted in key gang-affected sub-counties, the study investigates the structural drivers such as poverty, unemployment, political marginalization, and weak governance that contribute to gang formation and proliferation. The Panga Boys gang is characterized by decentralized cells that engage in violent crime, drug trafficking, and extortion, with recruitment strategies targeting economically and socially vulnerable youth. The paper critically evaluates state and community responses, highlighting the ineffectiveness of punitive policing and the potential of community-led initiatives. It also discusses the challenges and possibilities for rehabilitating and reintegrating former gang members. Ultimately, the study underscores the need for multi-sectoral, rights-based, and context-specific strategies to address gang violence and promote youth empowerment in Kenya’s urban peripheries.

Keywords: Youth gangs; Panga Boys; Mombasa; urban security; Gang violence; Youth development; Rehabilitation; Community policing; Socio-economic marginalization; Kenya

Swiss Legislation

Youth gang violence in urban Kenya has transitioned from isolated deviant acts to organized criminal patterns that pose serious threats to public security, youth development, and community resilience. In cities like Mombasa, this phenomenon has escalated into a full-blown social crisis, with criminal groups such as the Panga Boys emerging as dominant players in informal governance through intimidation, extortion, and violence. The gang’s rise is not merely a law enforcement issue but a symptom of deeper socio-economic and institutional failures. This study critically examines the origins, activities, and effects of the Panga Boys gang in Mombasa County and evaluates strategic responses to mitigate its impact on human security and sustainable development.

Background

Kenya’s youth demographic, which comprises over 35% of the population aged between 18 and 35 years (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics [KNBS], 2019) [1], has increasingly become vulnerable to gang recruitment, particularly in urban informal settlements. With high rates of unemployment, undereducation, drug abuse, and poor accessA to social amenities, many young people are trapped in cycles of poverty, frustration, and hopelessness. These conditions provide fertile ground for gang formation, especially in areas where state presence is minimal, and law enforcement is inconsistent or perceived as oppressive (National Crime Research Centre [NCRC], 2017) [2]. In Mombasa, the convergence of these challenges has resulted in the emergence of violent youth gangs, including Wakali Kwanza, Wakali Wao, Gaza, and more recently, the Panga Boys. Operating primarily in areas such as Kisauni, Likoni, and Nyali, the Panga Boys are known for their brutal use of pangas (machetes) to attack, rob, and intimidate residents. Their operations have become increasingly bold and organized, often involving minors as young as 13 years, with some reportedly receiving political protection or operating within loosely organized criminal economies [3,4]. While Mombasa has long struggled with youth crime, the violence perpetuated by Panga Boys represents a new phase in urban insecurity where gang-related violence has not only become normalized but also celebrated in some peer groups through social media and local music culture [5]. This normalization of violence reflects a disturbing socio-cultural shift in how masculinity, identity, and power are constructed among marginalized youth.

Objectives for the Study

To explore the socio-economic and political factors that contributed to the emergence of the Panga Boys gang in Mombasa.

To document the organizational structure, recruitment strategies, and criminal activities associated with the Panga Boys.

To assess the impact of the Panga Boys on community safety, livelihoods, and youth development.

To evaluate the response of security agencies and community-led initiatives in addressing gang- related violence.

To recommend effective strategies for the prevention, rehabilitation, and reintegration of gang- affiliated youth.

Statement of the Problem

Despite numerous security operations and community policing efforts, the Panga Boys gang continues to thrive in Mombasa, indicating a fundamental mismatch between enforcement strategies and the root causes of gang violence. The heavy-handed responses by law enforcement including extrajudicial killings, arbitrary arrests, and indiscriminate crackdowns have failed to dismantle gang networks and, in some cases, have exacerbated mistrust between communities and the police [6,7]. Moreover, the lack of coordinated social protection, youth rehabilitation, and economic empowerment programs has left many vulnerable youths with few alternatives but to join or remain in gang life. The situation is further compounded by poor urban governance, limited youth engagement in policymaking, and the politicization of gangs during election periods. As a result, the gang’s influence is expanding both geographically and ideologically, posing a severe threat to the safety, cohesion, and developmental trajectory of affected communities.

Rationale for the Study

This study is crucial in providing an evidence-based understanding of the Panga Boys phenomenon and its implications for urban security and youth policy in Kenya. Most existing research has generalized youth gangs under broad categories, with limited attention to region-specific gangs such as the Panga Boys whose operations and socio-political contexts are unique to the coastal setting. By examining the socio-economic drivers, gang dynamics, and state responses specific to Mombasa, this paper contributes nuanced insights that can inform targeted intervention programs, community resilience strategies, and sustainable policy reforms. Furthermore, this study aims to amplify the voices of community members, victims, and former gang members whose lived experiences are often overlooked in policymaking. By doing so, it will offer a holistic understanding of gang violence, not just as a criminal justice issue but as a developmental and human security challenge requiring multi-sectoral responses.

Literature Review

Socio-Economic and Political Factors Contributing to the Emergence of the Panga Boys Gang

The emergence of youth gangs in Kenya, particularly in Mombasa, can be attributed to a complex web of socio- economic, political, and structural factors. These factors are deeply rooted in the systemic marginalization of youth, inadequate governance, and the erosion of social structures. Mombasa, with its large informal settlements and a high concentration of unemployed youth, provides fertile ground for the formation of gangs like the Panga Boys. As a result, youth often resort to gang involvement as a means of securing identity, social status, and financial sustenance. Socio-economic marginalization stands as a central driver in this context. According to the National Crime Research Centre (2017) [2], poverty and unemployment are the primary catalysts for youth involvement in criminal activities. The economic hardships faced by the youth, particularly in the coastal region, coupled with limited access to education, create a stark reality for many young people. These conditions foster a sense of hopelessness, which gangs exploit by offering an alternative means of survival. UN-Habitat (2020), further highlights that urban marginalization, especially in informal settlements, exacerbates the vulnerability of youth to gang recruitment. In these areas, the lack of viable economic opportunities makes joining a gang seem like a viable option for many. This is supported by Omenya (2019) [8], who argues that limited socio-economic advancement opportunities breed resentment and frustration, leading young people to seek income, identity, and security through criminal activities. Furthermore, Mombasa’s unique political and historical context significantly influences gang dynamics. As explained by Mazrui (2005) and Botha (2013) [10], coastal youth have historically faced political marginalization. This has contributed to a pervasive sense of disillusionment with the political system, which in turn makes them more susceptible to radical and criminal movements. The political landscape in Mombasa has often been volatile, with gangs sometimes being manipulated by political actors during elections. Ndung’u (2010), notes that youth gangs are often mobilized to intimidate opponents or bolster political support, effectively turning them into tools for political manipulation and gaining informal protection.

Another critical factor is the rampant drug availability in the region, particularly heroin, which is facilitated by Mombasa’s port. The city’s position as a major trade hub in East Africa has unfortunately also made it a center for the illicit drug trade. Musoi (2021) [11] and the Waki Commission (2008), underscore how the port’s strategic location enables the smuggling of narcotics into the country, and how gangs capitalize on this trade to fund their operations. The narcotics trade also strengthens the control gangs have over certain neighborhoods, as drugs become both a commodity and a tool for maintaining power. Kindiki (2017), highlights the intricate link between the narcotics trade and youth gangs in the coastal region, with gangs using drug distribution networks to exert influence and enforce dominance within their territories. The breakdown of traditional family structures, particularly absentee parenting, further compounds the challenges facing vulnerable youth. Mutuku (2015) [12] and Gathura (2018), argue that in the absence of stable homes and positive role models, many youths are drawn to gangs for a sense of belonging and protection. These gangs often offer a surrogate family, providing emotional support and solidarity that may be lacking at home. Furthermore, the KNBS (2019) [9], census reveals alarming youth unemployment rates, particularly in coastal counties like Mombasa, further emphasizing the socio-economic pressures driving young people towards gang involvement. Despite the overwhelming evidence of these socio-economic and political factors contributing to the rise of gangs in Mombasa, there remains a significant gap in understanding the full extent of their interaction. While studies like Omenya (2019) [8] and Musoi (2021) [11], highlight the key drivers of gang formation, more research is needed to delve deeper into the interconnectedness of these factors and their cumulative effect on youth behavior. Additionally, while the role of drugs in perpetuating gang activity is well documented, the effectiveness of anti-narcotics policies and their impact on gang proliferation remains under-explored. These gaps in research underscore the need for comprehensive studies that consider both the macro and micro- level influences shaping gang activity in Mombasa.

Organizational Structure, Recruitment Strategies, and Criminal Activities of the Panga Boys

The Panga Boys, much like many youth gangs, operate with a decentralized structure that allows for flexibility and adaptability in their operations. Despite the lack of a formalized hierarchy, there is an internal organization within the group that helps maintain order and ensures that tasks are conducted effectively. These gangs are often organized into neighborhood-based cells, with each cell having its own informal leadership and specific roles within the gang's operations. The bond that holds these groups together is built on shared values of brotherhood, loyalty, and a mutual desire for survival. The shared identity of the gang members is reinforced by a culture of fear and respect for the leaders and established members, which solidifies the group's cohesion. Although urban gangs such as the Panga Boys lack rigid structures, Mutahi (2011) and Ruteere (2015). have highlighted how they function under a common code of violence and loyalty. The lack of formality in their organization allows these gangs to operate with considerable flexibility. Gecaga (2020). describes such gangs as networks, rather than formal organizations, which enable them to navigate the complexities of urban environments and respond to opportunities or threats rapidly. In Mombasa, the Panga Boys adopt specific roles within their cells, such as lookouts, hitmen, or collectors. These roles are essential to the gang’s operations, allowing for coordinated criminal activities across distinct parts of the city (Ombati, 2022).

One of the most critical aspects of the Panga Boys’ operations is their recruitment strategy. Recruitment is often peer-led, with individuals being drawn into the gang through neighborhood friendships, familial ties, or by dropping out of school. According to Simiyu (2020) [13] and the National Crime Research Centre (NCRC, 2019) [17], the gang recruits from vulnerable youth who face limited economic prospects and lack social support. These young recruits are often lured by the promise of money, drugs, protection, and status basic incentives that appeal to youth living in impoverished areas. Odhiambo (2017) [14] and Citizen Digital (2022) [15], also describe recruitment tactics such as forcing new recruits to demonstrate their loyalty through violent acts, theft, or other criminal behaviors, often as part of their initiation into the gang. The criminal activities conducted by the Panga Boys are varied and often violent. Their actions include armed robbery, extortion, burglary, drug peddling, and territorial disputes with rival gangs. Human Rights Watch (2021) [7,8] and The Standard (2022) [24], document numerous incidents where the Panga Boys have conducted brazen attacks, often in broad daylight, further underscoring their boldness and disregard for public safety. These violent acts are not limited to petty crimes; they also involve more organized criminal activities such as extortion rackets, particularly in the public transport sector and informal markets, where the Panga Boys collect protection fees from vendors and transport operators (Usalama Forum, 2014; Kamau, 2016).

The Panga Boys’ engagement in protection rackets is particularly noteworthy, as it represents a systematic form of organized crime that extends beyond individual criminal acts. These rackets often function like a mafia system, were gang members function as protectors of business owners or operators, demanding a fee in exchange for preventing violence or interference from rival groups. This system is documented by both Usalama Forum (2014) and Kamau (2016), who detail how gangs like the Panga Boys have infiltrated key sectors of the informal economy, further cementing their power and control over the community. The organizational structure, recruitment strategies, and criminal activities of the Panga Boys illustrate the complex and pervasive nature of urban gangs in Mombasa. Despite their informal nature, these gangs operate with an internal structure that enables them to conduct a wide range of illegal activities, including violent crime and economic exploitation. The recruitment methods, based on peer influence and promises of protection and status, target vulnerable youth, while the gang's criminal activities, from drug peddling to extortion, have significant implications for community safety and law enforcement efforts.

Impact on Community Safety, Livelihoods, and Youth Development

The presence of the Panga Boys gang in Mombasa has had a profound and far-reaching impact on community safety, economic activities, and youth development. One of the most immediate consequences of gang activity is the widespread fear and insecurity that permeates many neighborhoods in Mombasa. Residents are often forced to live under the constant threat of violence, with gang-related violence disrupting daily life. Small businesses face significant challenges as extortion and intimidation from gang members become common practices. This disruption hampers the economic vitality of local communities and creates an environment where entrepreneurial activities are stifled by the threat of violence. According to the Kenya National Commission on Human Rights (KNCHR, 2020) [16], gang violence has directly impaired the ability of families to engage in economic activities in a safe and predictable manner. Mutuma (2022) and Ong’ayo (2020), describe the pervasive fear instilled by gangs, which often leads to early closures of businesses, limiting economic productivity, and reducing the attractiveness of Mombasa as a tourist destination. These disruptions not only affect business owners but also the broader community, as the local economy becomes less stable, and growth opportunities are hindered. Human Rights Watch (HRW, 2021) [7] further reports that children and adolescents, who are frequent victims or witnesses of gang violence, experience trauma, leading to school absenteeism and long-term emotional distress. The long-term developmental impacts on youth exposed to gang violence are severe and multifaceted. Exposure to violence at an early age can have lasting effects on both mental and physical health, as well as on social development. Gitonga (2021) [17] and Mwangi (2018) highlight how youth growing up in gang-dominated environments often face reduced educational attainment and are more likely to engage in risky behaviors, such as drug use and early criminal involvement.

The environment of fear and violence not only discourages young people from pursuing education but also limits their aspirations and future opportunities. Additionally, Wamai (2017), emphasizes that communities affected by gangs often experience poor mental health outcomes, as residents live in constant fear, which affects their psychological well-being. Furthermore, the breakdown of social structures leads to strained inter-generational relationships, as younger individuals may grow up with little guidance or support from their families. While the direct impact of gang violence is often perceived as a problem affecting primarily male youth, gendered impacts also play a critical role in understanding the full scope of the Panga Boys' influence. Chege (2019), notes that girls in these communities are often indirectly affected by gang violence. They may become victims through forced relationships, victimization, or enduring familial trauma because of their involvement in gang-related activities. The consequences for girls can be both psychological and physical, with the risk of early pregnancy, violence, and exclusion from educational opportunities. These gendered effects underline the need for a more nuanced approach to gang violence, one that addresses the needs and vulnerabilities of all affected groups. In addition to the social and economic impacts, community policing initiatives aimed at curbing gang violence also suffer in the presence of powerful gangs. Usalama Forum (2016) reports that the pervasive influence of gangs often leads to a breakdown in trust and cooperation between local communities and law enforcement. When gangs exert control over neighborhoods, residents are often reluctant to engage with police, either due to fear of retaliation or because gangs have established their own systems of justice. This undermines efforts to build strong community-police partnerships that are essential for effective crime prevention and the restoration of public order. The far-reaching impacts of gang violence on Mombasa’s communities highlight the urgent need for comprehensive interventions that address both the immediate threats posed by gangs and the long-term developmental consequences for youth and families. While the Panga Boys’ activities are often framed in terms of violent crime, their influence extends well beyond criminal acts, disrupting economic stability, social cohesion, and youth development.

Responses of Security Agencies and Community-Led Initiatives

The state response to the Panga Boys and similar youth gangs has been widely criticized for its reactive nature and the excessive use of force. Security operations often involve police raids and extrajudicial killings, measures aimed at rapidly suppressing gang activity. However, these heavy-handed tactics have been ineffective in addressing the root causes of gang violence and have not resulted in the sustained dismantling of gangs like the Panga Boys. In fact, they may have even exacerbated the situation by alienating communities and fostering deeper resentment between residents and law enforcement. The Kenya National Commission on Human Rights (KNCHR, 2020) and Amnesty International (2019) [7,18] have been vocal in accusing Kenyan police of employing excessive force and conducting unlawful killings during anti- gang operations. These operations, characterized by widespread brutality, have resulted in numerous human rights violations in gang-prone areas, where entire communities feel under siege by both the gangs and the police. The Independent Policing Oversight Authority (IPOA, 2021), has documented multiple cases of police misconduct, particularly during the anti-gang operations in Mombasa. These incidents of police violence not only fail to address the underlying issues of youth gang involvement but also erode public trust in law enforcement, making it harder for authorities to effectively engage with communities in the fight against crime. Mutahi (2021), argues that these aggressive tactics alienate residents, often pushing them further away from law enforcement and undermining potential cooperation with the authorities.

In contrast to these violent and often counterproductive methods, community-led initiatives have shown promise in fostering sustainable solutions to gang violence. Nyumba Kumi, a community policing initiative, has gained traction as a method of preventing crime and building trust between the police and the public. However, the success of these efforts has been uneven, with implementation and effectiveness varying from one locality to another. Usalama Forum (2016) and Ruteere (2017), emphasize the significance of community- based surveillance and intelligence sharing, noting that residents are often the best source of information regarding gang activity and can play a crucial role in preventing crime. Additionally, faith-based organizations and local elders have been instrumental in conflict mediation and reconciliation, serving as neutral actors who can help resolve disputes and mitigate violence in gang-affected communities. According to Mazrui (2020) and Chege (2019), these community-based interventions are vital for creating safer environments and fostering long-term peace. The devolution of governance in Kenya has also provided new opportunities for county-level interventions aimed at addressing the challenges posed by youth gangs. The Mombasa County Integrated Development Plan (CIDP) 2018–2022 outlines several initiatives focused on youth empowerment and crime prevention. These programs aim to offer young people alternatives to gang involvement through vocational training, employment opportunities, and social services. However, as the County Government of Mombasa (2020), notes, challenges related to funding and implementation persist, hindering the full realization of these goals. Despite these obstacles, the decentralization of governance has created a more localized framework for addressing gang violence, potentially offering more tailored and effective responses to the unique dynamics of Mombasa’s gang culture. In conclusion, while state-led responses to the Panga Boys and other youth gangs in Mombasa have been criticized for their reliance on violence and repression, community-led initiatives and county-level interventions have shown greater promise in fostering sustainable solutions to gang violence. Moving forward, there is a need for a more balanced approach that combines strong law enforcement with community engagement and youth empowerment, addressing the root causes of gang involvement and providing alternatives for at-risk youth.

Strategies for Prevention, Rehabilitation, and Reintegration of Gang-Affiliated Youth

For long-term solutions to be effective, there must be a shift from militarized policing to more holistic approaches that focus on prevention, rehabilitation, and social reintegration. This requires addressing the structural causes of crime, building community resilience, and offering viable alternatives for at-risk youth. Rather than solely relying on force, interventions should focus on creating opportunities for young people and empowering communities to resist gang influences. Effective solutions will not only require comprehensive law enforcement but also community engagement and long-term structural changes aimed at reducing youth vulnerability. Youth employment and mentorship programs are among the most recommended deterrents to gang recruitment. According to Ndung'u (2010) and Kariuki (2018), creating structured opportunities for youth to engage in meaningful activities such as employment, training, or mentorship can reduce the appeal of gangs. Providing economic opportunities, especially in marginalized areas, is essential in tackling one of the root causes of gang involvement. UNDP (2020), further emphasizes the role of life skills, vocational training, and entrepreneurship programs in building self-reliance and reducing youth vulnerability to criminal groups. Investing in activities such as sports and arts, as suggested by Musoi (2021), can also provide constructive outlets for youth energy and foster a sense of belonging and purpose. Such programs create pathways for young people to develop skills and networks that support their reintegration into society. While preventative measures are important, rehabilitation and social reintegration of former gang members remain crucial to breaking the cycle of violence. Programs like the Pamoja Tuangamize Uhalifu campaign in Mombasa have shown promise but face significant challenges, primarily around underfunding and poor coordination (Usalama Forum, 2020). Rehabilitation should not only focus on job training but also provide essential psychological support, education, and family counseling to address the root emotional and psychological issues that contribute to gang involvement. Warah (2022), stresses that effective reintegration requires a holistic approach, ensuring that former gang members receive comprehensive support to rebuild their lives. Faith-based organizations and civil society groups have played pivotal roles in supporting gang-affiliated youth. For instance, St. John's Church in Mombasa runs a youth support center, which offers counseling, education, and mentorship to at-risk youth. Similarly, Haki Africa focuses on youth rights and reintegration efforts, helping to facilitate community involvement in these processes. Community-based organizations often bridge the gap between youth and formal services, making them valuable partners in efforts to reduce gang violence.

Successful models from other countries also offer valuable insights. Brazil's UPP (Pacifying Police Units) program and Glasgow's Violence Reduction Unit provide examples of integrated, long-term strategies that combine law enforcement with social services and community programs. Winton (2005) [19] and WHO (2015) [20,26], highlight how these models have successfully reduced violence by addressing both the symptoms and the causes of crime, focusing on prevention, rehabilitation, and community healing. These international examples could offer lessons for adapting similar initiatives to Mombasa, potentially guiding local policy toward more effective intervention strategies. In conclusion, tackling gang violence in Mombasa requires a multi-dimensional approach that addresses both the immediate safety concerns and the deeper structural causes of gang involvement. By shifting focus to prevention, rehabilitation, and reintegration, alongside strengthened community engagement, Mombasa can begin to break the cycle of violence and provide young people with the tools to build a better future. The success of such initiatives will depend on adequate funding, coordination, and the involvement of diverse stakeholders, including government bodies, community leaders, and international organizations.

Methodology Research Design

This study adopted a qualitative descriptive research design to examine the socio-economic, political, and structural factors contributing to the emergence and operations of the Panga Boys gang in Mombasa. The qualitative approach is well-suited to this inquiry as it prioritizes understanding human experiences, meanings, and social processes, which are essential for exploring the complex and multi-dimensional nature of gang formation and activity. A qualitative design allows for the investigation of the lived experiences of individuals directly or indirectly affected by gang violence among youth involved in the gangs, community members, local law enforcement, and rehabilitation professionals. By emphasizing personal narratives and subjective perceptions, the study provides deeper insight into the motivations, aspirations, and challenges faced by these individuals, which quantitative methods might overlook (Creswell C Poth, 2018). This design recognizes the importance of context and meaning in understanding the dynamics of gang membership and its impact on community safety, livelihoods, and youth development.

Moreover, the qualitative approach is particularly effective in exploring the underlying social, economic, and political factors that drive gang activity.

The study focused on gathering rich, contextual data regarding the socio-economic conditions, political factors, and structural vulnerabilities within Mombasa's informal settlements, where gang activity is most prevalent. It also allowed for the exploration of local responses to gang violence, such as community-led initiatives, informal support networks, and rehabilitation programs. These responses are often overlooked by broader policy studies, yet they play a crucial role in shaping the effectiveness of crime prevention and intervention strategies. The descriptive aspect of the research design emphasizes a detailed portrayal of the phenomena under investigation. This approach enables documentation of gang members’ organizational structures, their recruitment processes, and the nature of criminal activities they engage in, as well as community perceptions and responses to gang violence. The focus on description, rather than causal explanation or statistical generalization, ensures that the study remains grounded in the real-world complexities and nuances of gang violence in Mombasa. Furthermore, the use of in-depth interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs), and content analysis of media reports allows for triangulation of data from various sources. This enhances the credibility and validity of the findings, as it draws on multiple perspectives and experiences, offering a more comprehensive understanding of the issue.

Study Area

The study was conducted in Mombasa County, with a focus on the sub-counties of Kisauni, Likoni, Nyali, and Changamwe-areas that have been repeatedly identified as hotbeds for youth gang activity, including the operations of the Panga Boys (KNCHR, 2020; Citizen Digital, 2022) [16,15]. These areas are characterized by dense informal settlements, youth unemployment, drug abuse, and limited access to social services.

Target Population

The target population for this study consisted of several key groups who were selected for their unique and valuable perspectives on the dynamics of gang violence, community safety, and potential interventions.

These groups included:

Former and active youth gang members, with particular emphasis on reformed Panga Boys members. This group was essential for providing direct insights into the gang's formation, operations, recruitment strategies, and the challenges of reintegration after leaving the gang. Former members, especially those who have undergone rehabilitation, could offer a nuanced understanding of what motivates youth to join gangs and the impact of gang life on individuals and their communities.

Community members and victims of gang violence, who have experienced the consequences of gang- related activities firsthand. Their perspectives were crucial in understanding the broader social and economic impacts of gang violence on local communities. By including victims and residents, the study could capture how gang activity affects daily life, community safety, and economic opportunities.

Law enforcement officers, who are directly involved in policing gang activity and maintaining law and order. Law enforcement perspectives provided a critical understanding of the state’s response to gang violence, the challenges faced by police in combating gangs, and the effectiveness of current strategies in preventing or reducing gang-related crimes.

Local administrators, such as chiefs and sub-chiefs, play a significant role in the governance of local areas and are often the first point of contact for addressing security concerns at the community level. Their insights were important for understanding the administrative and local government efforts to tackle gang violence and engage with communities in fostering peace.

Representatives of community-based organizations (CBOs), which are often at the forefront of community-driven initiatives to prevent gang involvement and support at-risk youth. These representatives provided perspectives on grassroots efforts to address gang violence, offer rehabilitation, and promote youth empowerment through education, vocational training, and social support.

Religious leaders and youth mentors, who play a pivotal role in guiding young people, providing mentorship, and offering moral and spiritual support. These individuals were included for their unique ability to influence youth behavior and offer alternative pathways to engagement and self- improvement outside of gang involvement.

Each of these categories was carefully selected to ensure the inclusion of diverse viewpoints, capturing the multi-dimensional nature of gang violence in Mombasa. By drawing on the experiences and expertise of individuals from these divergent backgrounds, the study aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of gang dynamics, its impact on communities, and the potential strategies for intervention and prevention.

Sampling Procedures

In this study, a purposive sampling strategy was utilized to select information-rich participants who possessed a deep understanding of the Panga Boys gang, its operations, and its impact on the community. Purposive sampling is particularly effective in qualitative research when the goal is to gain insights from individuals who are directly or indirectly involved in the phenomenon under study. This approach allowed for the identification of participants who could offer valuable perspectives on the socio-economic, political, and cultural dynamics that drive gang activity in Mombasa. To reach individuals with lived experiences, particularly those who may be harder to access due to their involvement in gang activities, snowball sampling was employed. This technique is ideal for populations that are hidden or stigmatized, as it allows for the identification of participants through referrals from initial respondents. Snowball sampling was especially useful in connecting with former gang members and those living in communities where trust and anonymity are crucial for participation (Noy, 2008). This helped to ensure that the study reached individuals who could provide first-hand accounts of gang-related experiences, recruitment, and the challenges of reintegration. The study aimed to engage a diverse yet thematically aligned sample of participants, ensuring a comprehensive exploration of the issue from various perspectives. Specifically, the study sought to involve:

10-12 former or current gang-affiliated youth, who could provide direct insights into gang recruitment, activities, and the socio-economic factors driving their involvement.

8-10 community elders and residents, whose knowledge of local socio-political conditions, community responses, and historical context would offer valuable understanding of the broader dynamics influencing gang formation and behavior.

5 law enforcement and administrative officials, who could provide perspectives on the state's response to gang violence, including security strategies, policing, and challenges in law enforcement.

4-6 representatives from community-based organizations (CBOs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), whose work in violence prevention, rehabilitation, and community empowerment could provide insights into grassroots initiatives aimed at addressing gang violence and supporting youth.

2-3 religious leaders and youth mentors, whose role in community mobilization, mentorship, and moral guidance can offer a unique viewpoint on preventive measures and youth development.

This sample composition ensured a rich and diverse range of voices, enabling the triangulation of perspectives across different stakeholder groups. Triangulation of data from multiple sources enhances the validity and credibility of the findings, ensuring that the study captures the complex realities of gang violence and its socio- cultural implications in Mombasa

Data Collection Methods In-Depth Interviews

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with all participant groups. The interviews were guided by thematic questions aligned with the five study objectives and allowed for flexibility to probe emerging issues (Patton, 2002) [21]. Questions focused on gang formation, drivers of youth involvement, daily operations, community impact, response efforts, and rehabilitation experiences.

Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)

Four FGDs were held with community youth, parents, and former gang members in Kisauni and Likoni. These discussions offered collective insights into the social environment, peer pressure, and shared community concerns regarding safety and youth engagement.

Document and Media Review

A review of existing reports, newspaper articles, police records, and NGO publications provided contextual data to complement field findings. Key documents included reports by KNCHR, NCRC, Human Rights Watch, and local media (e.g., The Standard, Citizen TV, Daily Nation).

Data Analysis

Interview and focus group discussion (FGD) transcripts were analyzed using thematic analysis, following the framework proposed by Braun and Clarke (2006) [22]. The data were transcribed verbatim and manually coded to identify recurring patterns, contradictions, and narratives aligned with the study objectives. NVivo software was utilized to enhance data management and facilitate the clustering of emergent themes. Key themes that emerged included socio-economic drivers of gang emergence, gang organizations and tactics, lived experiences of violence, policing responses, and pathways to rehabilitation.

Ethical Considerations

This study adhered to strict ethical standards. Informed consent was obtained from all participants after clearly explaining the study's purpose, confidentiality measures, and their right to withdraw at any time. Anonymity and confidentiality were maintained using pseudonyms and secure data storage. For vulnerable groups, such as minors or individuals affected by trauma, additional safeguards were applied, including obtaining assent and involving qualified social workers. Ethical clearance was obtained from a relevant Institutional Review Board or research ethics committee.

Limitations of the Study

The study faced several limitations. Gaining access to current or former gang members was challenging due to their fear of retaliation or arrest, which limited the depth of firsthand accounts. Additionally, some community members were reluctant to speak openly, due to mistrust in security agencies and fear of surveillance. Finally, the findings are context-specific to the urban coastal setting of Mombasa and may not be directly generalized to other regions with different socio-political dynamics.

Findings and Discussion

Socio-Economic and Political Factors Behind the Emergence of the Panga Boys

The emergence of the Panga Boys gang in Mombasa can be directly attributed to a combination of socio-economic, political, and structural factors that shape the lives of youth in marginalized communities. Interviews with community members, local administrators, and gang-affiliated youth revealed that poverty, unemployment, and lack of formal education are the primary drivers behind the surge in gang activity. Over 70% of the youth interviewed cited joblessness and family instability as the key reasons for their involvement in the Panga Boys gang. Most of these youth had dropped out of school due to financial constraints and had limited access to vocational training or job opportunities. This aligns with the findings of UN-Habitat (2020) [] and Omenya (2019) [8], both of whom link the proliferation of youth gangs to economic disenfranchisement and the absence of viable livelihood alternatives. An elder from the Kisauni area expressed the despair felt by many youth: "These boys feel abandoned. They have no work, no hope, and they see the gang as a place to belong." This statement underscores the emotional and psychological factors that drive youth to seek belonging and identity through gang membership. The lack of support systems and opportunities for self-improvement fosters a sense of alienation, and youth turn to gangs as a survival mechanism. The Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (2019) [1], further highlights the disproportionate unemployment rates in coastal regions like Mombasa. Youth unemployment in these areas remains significantly higher than in other parts of the country, exacerbating feelings of disenfranchisement. Without access to meaningful employment or productive outlets, young people often view gangs as an alternative means of attaining financial stability, protection, and social status.

From a political perspective, some participants alleged that local politicians have historically used gangs as tools for electoral violence. These allegations suggest that gangs have been mobilized by political elites to intimidate opponents, secure votes, or offer protection in exchange for loyalty. This is consistent with the findings of Botha (2013) [10] and Ndung’u (2010), who argue that youth gangs in Kenya, including the Panga Boys, have sometimes been used by political actors to further their agendas. While not all claims of political complicity were substantiated, the perception of political manipulation by gangs contributes to a deep-seated mistrust of government institutions among the local population. In addition to economic and political factors, the environmental conditions of informal settlements play a significant role in shaping gang culture. Many of the gang recruits come from areas such as Bangladesh and Majengo, which are characterized by overcrowding, drug abuse, and absentee parenting. These informal settlements are often devoid of adequate social services, including schools, healthcare, and recreational facilities. The lack of strong family structures and community support systems further exacerbates the vulnerability of youth, leading them to seek belonging to gangs. Mutuku (2015) and Musoi (2021), underscore the critical role that family dysfunction and absentee parenting play in driving youth towards gangs, as these youths lack positive role models or guidance at home.

This socio-political environment in Mombasa provides fertile ground for youth gang formation. The convergence of structural inequality, poor governance, and family breakdown creates an atmosphere in which gangs like the Panga Boys can thrive. Gang membership offers these young people a sense of belonging, protection, and an alternative means of survival. The intersection of these socio-economic challenges makes it difficult for youth to break free from the cycle of violence and crime, as the Panga Boys gang presents itself as a solution to the lack of opportunities and security. The socio-economic and political context in Mombasa significantly contributes to the emergence and perpetuation of gangs like the Panga Boys. Structural inequality, poor governance, and dysfunctional family systems create an environment where gang membership becomes an appealing, albeit perilous, alternative for young people. These socio-political dynamics form the foundation for understanding how gangs operate in the region and why they continue to attract vulnerable young people. Addressing these underlying issues will be crucial in combating gang violence and offering viable solutions for at-risk youth.

Organization, Recruitment Strategies, and Criminal Activities of the Panga Boys

The Panga Boys gang in Mombasa operates as a loosely organized but highly coordinated network, characterized by decentralized cells that function independently yet collaborate effectively when conducting criminal activities. Interviews with reformed gang members and police officers revealed that while the Panga Boys do not have a formal hierarchy, there is a clear division of labor within the gang. Members often hold informal titles such as "bosses" or "generals," but these titles are not rigidly defined and are more symbolic of influence and leadership within the gang's local cell. Despite the lack of formal structure, the cells are well- coordinated in the execution of their operations, which includes roles such as scouts, enforcers, and extortion collectors. Recruitment into the Panga Boys is primarily driven by socio-economic desperation. The gang preys on vulnerable youth, particularly school dropouts, football clubs, and street children, offering them a sense of belonging, financial support, and protection. As one reformed gang member recalled: “They told me, ‘Join us and you’ll never sleep hungry again.’ I was 16 and desperate.” This statement encapsulates the primary motivation for recruitment the promise of food, shelter, and financial stability for those who feel abandoned by society. This mirrors the research by Simiyu (2020)[13] and Odhiambo (2017) [14], who argue that gang recruitment often becomes a survival mechanism for marginalized youth, who find themselves with few options beyond joining criminal organizations for both economic and social security. Upon entry, many recruits are subjected to initiation rites that are intended to solidify their loyalty and commitment to the gang. These initiation processes typically involve committing minor crimes or engaging in violent acts, which serve to both evaluate the recruit's loyalty and reinforce the gang's violent culture. These rites can also serve to socialize newcomers into the gang’s violent ethos and solidify their role within the gang.

The criminal activities associated with the Panga Boys are wide-ranging and often violent. These include:

Muggings, where gang members use panga (machetes) to rob their victims, are a hallmark of the Panga Boys' intimidation tactics.

Protection rackets on public transport, specifically targeting matatus (public minivans), where the gang demands money from drivers and conductors in exchange for “protection” from other gangs or threats of violence.

Drug distribution in areas like Likoni and Kisauni, where gang members often work as middlemen in the drug trade, ensuring a steady stream of income from the illegal narcotics market.

Robbery with violence, particularly during times of heightened tension such as political campaigns or power blackouts, when security is typically lax, providing an opportunity for the gang to engage in widespread looting and attacks.

Furthermore, it was reported that the gang has established collaborative relationships with corrupt law enforcement officers and politicians, further complicating law enforcement efforts. Police sources indicated that these alliances allow the Panga Boys to operate with a certain degree of impunity, making it difficult for security agencies to mount effective responses. These findings align with the observations made by HRW (2021) [5] and Usalama Forum (2014), which document how corruption and political connections enable the persistence of gang activities, despite ongoing efforts by authorities to curb their influence. The fluid structure of the Panga Boys, combined with their ability to exploit local political and social dynamics, enhances their resilience and longevity. The decentralized organization allows them to avoid the vulnerabilities that typically accompany more rigid hierarchical structures, while the localized violence they engage in enables them to operate under the radar of law enforcement. Their recruitment strategy, rooted in economic desperation, identity formation, and peer bonding, makes the Panga Boys both a social and a criminal phenomenon. As long as socio-economic conditions remain unfavorable and alternative forms of support are lacking, gangs like the Panga Boys will continue to attract vulnerable youth, perpetuating cycles of violence and crime. This interconnection of social, economic, and criminal factors underscores the complexity of addressing gang violence in Mombasa, requiring more than just law enforcement interventions but also systemic reforms that tackle the root causes of youth disenfranchisement.

Impact on Community Safety, Livelihoods, and Youth Development

Interviews and focus group discussions with residents, traders, and educators in Mombasa revealed a consistent narrative: the presence of the Panga Boys gang has significantly disrupted daily life, particularly in informal settlements such as Likoni, Bangladesh, and Majengo. Community members unanimously reported heightened insecurity, with gang activities creating a pervasive atmosphere of fear and anxiety. A trader in Likoni expressed the distress shared by many: “We live in fear. You never know when they’ll strike. The police are no help. ”This fear is not hypothetical it is grounded in lived experience. Community members cited repeat instances of mugging, extortion, and violent confrontations, many of which occur in broad daylight and go unpunished due to inadequate police response or alleged complicity. Small-scale traders and business owners, particularly women, reported being forced to close their businesses earlier than usual due to safety concerns. Those who operate kiosks, salons, or vegetable stalls described regular demands for “protection fees” from gang members. Non-compliance often results in threats, property damage, or even physical assault. These findings are consistent with previous reports by KNCHR (2020) [6], and Usalama Forum (2014), which document how urban gangs undermine local economies by extorting informal businesses, especially in underserved neighborhoods.

Beyond the economic toll, the psychosocial impact on youth is profound. Many adolescents suffer from trauma, low self-esteem, and disrupted personal development due to either direct involvement in or exposure to gang violence. Interviews with school administrators and teachers in Changamwe and Kisauni highlighted a disturbing trend: “Some students drop out because their older brothers are in gangs or because they are targeted for recruitment,” noted a headteacher in Changamwe. Others cited increased absenteeism, with students avoiding school altogether due to fears of violence en route or peer pressure from gang-affiliated peers. Gitonga (2021) [17] and Mwangi (2018) emphasize that such prolonged exposure to violence leads to poor educational outcomes and long-term psychological scars that diminish youth potential. This toxic environment affects family dynamics and community trust. In areas where the Panga Boys operate with relative impunity, residents are reluctant to report incidents or cooperate with law enforcement, fearing retaliation. Women and girls face unique vulnerabilities; many have experienced sexual harassment, forced relationships, or domestic strain caused by male relatives involved in gang life. Chege (2019) underscores how gang-dominated environments reinforce gender-based inequalities and limit female mobility and economic participation. Moreover, the tourism and transport sectors critical to Mombasa’s economy have not been spared. Stakeholders in these industries cited declining customer confidence, as both locals and visitors become increasingly wary of frequent criminal incidents, especially in transport hubs and market areas. Ong’ayo (2020) and Mutuma (2022), report that such insecurity has a ripple effect, shrinking local economies and deterring investment. The Panga Boys’ presence significantly undermines the social fabric and economic resilience of communities in Mombasa. From women-led businesses being extorted, to schoolchildren missing class, the gang’s influence seeps into every layer of community life. The resulting climate of fear and mistrust erodes not only physical security but also personal development, gender equality, and social cohesion. These effects affirm broader scholarly and institutional findings (e.g., KNCHR, 2020; Gitonga, 2021; HRW, 2021) [5,6,17] that link gang violence to declining socio-economic wellbeing, especially in marginal urban settings. Therefore, addressing gang violence in Mombasa is not only a security imperative but also a social justice and development priority.

Responses by Security Agencies and Community Initiatives

The response by security agencies to the Panga Boys gang has been widely criticized as sporadic, reactive, and excessively forceful. Interviews with residents, community leaders, and human rights actors revealed deep mistrust toward the police, stemming from a pattern of brutality and impunity. As one community leader in Kisauni lamented: “They kill the small fish but leave the big men. It is just a show.” This sentiment reflects a broader concern that law enforcement operations focus on street-level gang members often minors, while overlooking the networks of protection and patronage that shield key organizers. Reports by the Kenya National Commission on Human Rights (KNCHR, 2020) [6] and Amnesty International (2019) [18], confirm that extrajudicial killings are a recurring issue in gang-prone urban areas such as Mombasa. These reports document cases where suspects, many of them youths, are shot under murky circumstances, often without trial or credible evidence linking them to criminal activity. The Independent Policing Oversight Authority (IPOA, 2021) has also raised concerns about police misconduct during anti-gang operations. Despite these reports, accountability remains elusive, further eroding public confidence. Mutahi (2021), argues that such heavy-handed tactics alienate communities and inhibit information-sharing, which is crucial for effective crime prevention.

In contrast to the state’s reactive approach, several community-led initiatives have emerged to address gang violence through prevention, rehabilitation, and social reintegration. Notable examples include:

Nyumba Kumi (Ten Households): This grassroots security model promotes community surveillance and early warning systems. While promising in principle, its success varies by locality and often hinges on active local leadership and trust among residents.

Faith-based interventions: Institutions like St. John’s Community Centre in Mombasa run youth rehabilitation programs, offering counseling, skills training, and spiritual support. These initiatives aim to reintegrate former gang members into society and promote alternative paths.

NGO partnerships: Organizations such as Haki Africa are actively involved in civic education, legal aid, and job placement. Their work includes outreach to at-risk youth, advocacy against police brutality, and collaboration with local leaders to reduce gang influence.

While these programs are commendable, many faces critical limitations, particularly inadequate funding, lack of trained personnel, and weak coordination with formal security and governance structures. According to the Mombasa County Integrated Development Plan (CIDP) 2018–2022, the county government has outlined several youth-targeted interventions, including job creation and crime prevention initiatives. However, the stakeholders interviewed noted that most of these programs remain unimplemented or have limited reach, due to bureaucratic inertia and resource constraints. The ineffectiveness of punitive law enforcement tactics marked by extrajudicial killings and selective justice combined with under-resourced but promising community efforts, creates a volatile and unsustainable security environment in Mombasa. Without institutional accountability, proper funding, and coordination, these parallel responses continue to operate in silos, failing to break the cycle of gang violence. A more sustainable and rights-based approach must integrate community intelligence, youth empowerment, and restorative justice mechanisms, backed by political will and systemic reform.

Prevention, Rehabilitation, and Reintegration Strategies

Interviews with former Panga Boys members in Mombasa revealed an ardent desire for reform, particularly among those who had grown disillusioned with violence and instability. However, their path out of gang life is fraught with obstacles. The absence of structured, secure, and supportive exit mechanisms has left many reformed youths in limbo-eager to change but unsure of how to start anew. Several common barriers to reintegration were consistently highlighted:

Fear of retaliation from current gang members who view defection as betrayal.

Stigma from the wider community, which continues to perceive reformed individuals as threats or criminals.

Lack of access to meaningful employment, education, or training opportunities, leaving many with few alternatives to illegal income-generating activities.

As one former gang member in Likoni shared: “I want to change, but where do I go? Who will accept me?” This dilemma reflects a broader systemic failure to provide exit pathways for at-risk youth. Reintegration, as shown in both international and local contexts, requires a holistic, multidimensional approach that includes:

Psychosocial support: Many former gang members suffer from trauma, depression, and anxiety, yet mental health services are scarce or inaccessible. Counseling and group therapy are essential to foster emotional healing and resilience.

Vocational training and entrepreneurship support: Programs offering skills in areas like mechanics, tailoring, ICT, or construction coupled with micro-loans or business incubation can provide a tangible alternative to criminality.

Community sensitization campaigns: These are critical to reduce stigma, promote forgiveness, and ensure that reformed individuals are not ostracized or pushed back into gangs due to rejection or suspicion.

International experiences offer valuable lessons for Mombasa:

Brazil’s Unidade de Polícia Pacificadora (UPP) model emphasizes early intervention, community policing, and collaboration between security, health, and education sectors (Winton, 2005) [25]. While the UPP faced challenges, it demonstrated that persistent state presence combined with social investment can stabilize volatile neighborhoods.

Scotland’s Violence Reduction Unit (VRU), considered a model for treating violence as a public health issue, focuses on mentorship, outreach, and restorative justice (WHO, 2015)[26]. It has significantly reduced youth violence through cross-sectoral collaboration.

These approaches underline the importance of prevention over punishment, the need for redible local actors, and long-term state commitment.

In Mombasa, the Pamoja Tuangamize Uhalifu (Let’s Eliminate Crime Together) campaign spearheaded by religious institutions, elders, and civil society has shown promise. It involves peace dialogues, public amnesty offers, and skills training. However, stakeholders acknowledge that its impact has been limited by inconsistent funding, fragmented leadership, and a lack of follow-up mechanisms. Notably, the involvement of respected figures, such as Muslim and Christian clerics, local elders, and successfully reformed gang members, was widely viewed by participants as enhancing trust, legitimacy, and community acceptance.

Rehabilitation must move beyond punitive policing to encompass empowerment, education, and emotional support. While reintegration is undeniably challenging, it is achievable with coordinated efforts from government, community leaders, faith groups, and civil society. Most importantly, the state must invest in youth futures, not only to address symptoms of gang violence but to tackle its structural root causes. Without this commitment, reform-minded youths will continue to struggle against a system that promises change but offers few real opportunities.

Conclusions

This study explored the socio-economic, political, and organizational dynamics of the Panga Boys gang in Mombasa, assessing its impact on community safety, livelihoods, and youth development. The findings reveal a complex interplay of structural, social, and institutional factors that fuel the gang's emergence and resilience, while also highlighting gaps in current response strategies. The emergence of the Panga Boys is intricately linked to persistent socio-economic inequalities, high youth unemployment, and political manipulation. Many young people-especially those from informal settlements such as Bangladesh, Majengo, and Likoni-are drawn into gangs as a means of survival, identity, and protection. The lack of education, limited access to vocational training, and family instability further exacerbate vulnerability. In some instances, local political actors have exploited these youth for electoral violence, deepening the entanglement between crime and politics. Weak governance structures and inadequate service delivery in these marginalized areas have created fertile ground for gang proliferation. Organizationally, the Panga Boys operate through a decentralized structure, allowing for flexibility and resilience in their operations. While lacking a rigid hierarchy, they maintain clear functional roles such as scouts, enforcers, and extortionists. Recruitment strategies target disenfranchised youth through peer influence, promises of income, and the allure of gang brotherhood. Initiation often involves engaging in violent acts to prove loyalty. Their criminal activities include mugging, extortion, drug distribution, and targeted violence, particularly during political tensions or power outages. Corrupt linkages with elements of law enforcement and local political networks further complicate intervention efforts. The impact on community safety and livelihoods has been profound. Rising incidents of violence, intimidation, and extortion have disrupted daily life, particularly in informal settlements. Women report heightened vulnerability, and business owners are often forced to close early or pay illegal protection fees. Schools report increased absenteeism, with some students targeted for recruitment or traumatized by familial gang involvement. These disruptions have not only threatened public safety but have also eroded the social fabric, instilled fear, and curtailed economic opportunities for already marginalized communities.

Responses from the state, particularly law enforcement, have been reactive and criticized for brutality. Community members describe police interventions as sporadic and excessively forceful, often involving extrajudicial killings that disproportionately target low-level offenders while powerful backers remain untouched. This has fueled mistrust and undermined cooperation. Conversely, community-driven efforts— such as Nyumba Kumi initiatives, church-led rehabilitation programs, and partnerships with NGOs like Haki Africa—have shown promise but suffer from limited funding, inadequate coordination, and lack of institutional support from the county government. Rehabilitation and reintegration of former gang members remain a major challenge. While some individuals express genuine willingness to reform, they face significant obstacles including fear of retaliation from active gang members, community stigma, and a lack of employment or educational opportunities. Holistic programs that provide mental health support, vocational training, and family reintegration are essential, yet remain sparse and under-resourced. Successful models from other global contexts underscore the need for coordinated, multisectoral interventions that prioritize prevention, empowerment, and community resilience. Finally, the study underscores that addressing gang violence in Mombasa requires more than security operations. It calls for a comprehensive strategy that combines social investment, political accountability, and community engagement to create sustainable alternatives for at-risk youth and restore public trust in institutions.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, the following strategic recommendations are proposed to mitigate the influence of the Panga Boys gang and promote sustainable peace, security, and youth development in Mombasa County.

Addressing Socio-Economic Drivers

Tackling the root causes of youth gang involvement begins with addressing the socio-economic vulnerabilities that make young people susceptible to recruitment. The government, in partnership with county governments, development partners, and the private sector, should prioritize large-scale youth employment programs and vocational training initiatives. Targeted investments in sectors such as construction, hospitality, ICT, and the blue economy can absorb significant numbers of unemployed youth, particularly in coastal urban informal settlements. Skills development centers should be established in high-risk areas, offering certifications in trades like masonry, electrical work, catering, and digital skills.

In parallel, strengthening social safety nets is essential. Expansion of existing welfare programs, including cash transfers, child support grants, and nutritional assistance—will help stabilize households and reduce economic desperation. Incorporating family counseling and psychosocial support services into these programs can help prevent domestic instability, a known risk factor for gang affiliation.

Improving Law Enforcement Responses

To restore public trust and enhance the effectiveness of security interventions, law enforcement must shift from reactionary, force-heavy tactics to community-oriented and intelligence-led policing. Police units should collaborate with local leaders, community-based organizations, and youth groups to identify potential threats and respond with proportionate, right-respecting strategies. Establishing community policing forums and improving local crime reporting systems can foster trust and mutual accountability.

Moreover, accountability for human rights violations by security agencies must be non-negotiable. Bodies such as the Independent Policing Oversight Authority (IPOA) should be adequately resourced to investigate and prosecute cases of police misconduct. Transparent handling of such cases can help rebuild community confidence in the justice system and signal a shift toward professionalized, lawful policing.

Supporting Rehabilitation and Reintegration of Former Gang Members

Successful disengagement from gang life requires robust, multi-pronged rehabilitation programs. These should include individualized case management involving counselors, psychologists, social workers, and peer mentors preferably reformed gang members with lived experience. Programs must address trauma, provide academic catch-up opportunities, and offer skills development aligned with market needs. Reintegration efforts should be accompanied by community sensitization to reduce stigma and support reconciliation. In addition, youth empowerment initiatives should be scaled up to provide positive identity and purpose. Community youth hubs offering recreational activities, sports, cultural arts, mentorship, and entrepreneurship incubation can serve as safe spaces for youth to grow outside the influence of gangs. Incentivized apprenticeships and seed funding for small businesses can further reinforce alternative pathways.

Strengthening Community-Led Initiatives

Local ownership is vital for the success of gang prevention efforts. The government should increase funding and technical support for grassroots organizations, including NGOs, faith-based groups, and community- based organizations (CBOs), that are actively engaged in youth mentorship, mediation, and violence prevention. A coordinated approach between the state and these organizations will maximize impact and ensure context-appropriate solutions. Additionally, community mobilization and awareness campaigns are essential to shift public perceptions. Using creative methods such as street theatre, radio programs, school clubs, and religious platforms, stakeholders should educate communities, particularly youth and parents—on the risks of gang involvement and the benefits of peacebuilding. The use of relatable narratives and testimonials from reformed gang members can make such campaigns more impactful.

Policy and Legal Frameworks

A comprehensive review of existing legal frameworks is necessary to ensure they align with contemporary gang dynamics. Laws such as the Prevention of Organised Crimes Act (2010), and Anti-Gang provisions must be implemented with due process safeguards and integrated with preventive social programs. Legal reforms should prioritize diversionary and rehabilitative measures for youth offenders rather than punitive incarceration. Finally, the establishment of dedicated youth rehabilitation centers, modeled after successful interventions like the Kibra Youth Empowerment Center, is highly recommended. These centers should provide holistic services—including education, health care, vocational training, psychosocial support, and post-reintegration follow-up. With proper coordination and community involvement, these centers can become beacons of hope and transformation for youth at risk.

Conclusion

The Panga Boys gang in Mombasa represents a significant threat to both community safety and the future development of young people in the region. The gang’s rise can be attributed to deep-rooted socio-economic factors, including poverty, unemployment, and political manipulation, compounded by inadequate responses from both the state and community institutions. Tackling this issue requires a multifaceted approach that includes economic empowerment, enhanced law enforcement, community-driven interventions, and comprehensive rehabilitation strategies. Only through a concerted, collaborative effort can Mombasa begin to reclaim its streets from the menace of youth gangs and offer its young people a brighter, safer future.

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