Letter to Editor

PVDF-based Sensors for Cardiology and Cardiovascular Therapy or Theranostics

Adamovich ED¹, Burianskaya EL¹, Gradov OV¹*, Gradova MA¹ and Kochervinskii VV²

¹NN Semenov Federal Research Center for Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow

²LY Karpov Institute of Physical Chemistry, Moscow, Russia

Submission: March 04, 2024; Published: March 20, 2024

*Corresponding author: Gradov OV, NN Semenov Federal Research Center for Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia

How to cite this article: Adamovich ED, Burianskaya EL, Gradov OV, Gradova MA, Kochervinskii VV. PVDF-based Sensors for Cardiology and Cardiovascular Therapy or Theranostics. J Cardiol & Cardiovasc Ther. 2023; 19(2): 556007. DOI: 10.19080/JOCCT.2024.19.556007

Abstract

This short bibliographic paper is convolution / quintessence of the chapters from a non-English monograph “Applications of frerroelectric polymers in technology and medicine - complex review” (printed in Moldova in 2021, and, unfortunately, inaccessible to the English-speaking readers), considering application of PVDF-based materials for sensory purposes and especially focused on the methods and techniques related to hemodynamics, blood biochemistry and cardiology / cardiovascular therapy.

Keywords: Cardiovascular therapy; Ferroelectric polymer; Piezoelectric polymer; PVDF; Surgical meshes; Hemodynamics; Photoplethysmography; Korotkoff sounds; Cutaneous blood pressure sensors; Cardiorespiratory signals; Point-of-care sensing and diagnostics; Blood ammonium analyzers; Hemocompatibility; Angiogenesis; Vascularization; Meshes

PVDF-based sensors of cardiorespiratory signals, blood pressure and heartbeat sensors

This short bibliographic paper is an extended convolution / quintessence of the chapters from a non-English monograph [1] (unfortunately, inaccessible to the English-speaking readers), considering application of PVDF-based materials for sensory purposes and especially focused on the methods and techniques related to hemodynamics, blood biochemistry and cardiology / cardiovascular therapy.

Sensors for both fundamental physiological and biophysical parameters and a number of important clinical and biochemical parameters based on PVDF are well known since 1970s-1980s. The most popular examples of physiological and biophysical sensors based on PVDF include:

1. Blood pressure sensors: both cutaneous blood pressure sensors (including those analyzing Korotkoff sounds [2]), and intravascular pressure sensors [3]; both based on the conventional principles of piezoelectric transducers [4,5], and non-invasive sensors based on the principles of photoacoustic measurements and photoplethysmography [6].

2. Piezoelectric blood flow sensors [7,8], including Doppler blood flow sensors [9], non-invasive blood flow sensors for transcranial and intracranial measurements [10]; and in general - hemodynamic sensors, including photoacoustic ones, especially tomographic devices using PVDF sensors [11-14].

3. Integrated multichannel monitors of cardiorespiratory signals, including intraoperative and bedside clinical monitors and sensors [15-17], as well as fetal ones for monitoring intrauterine development [18].

4. Heartbeat [19-21] and / or pulse sensors - mainly contact wrist and finger ones [22] or non-invasive models [23-25] (including echo-sensors [26]); both with wired transmission [27-29] and wireless telemetry; often self-sustaining by powering pulse energy converted into electrical one using PVDF piezoelectricity [30,31]; in some cases sensors for arterial measurements, including intraoperative and perioperative ones [32,33].

PVDF-based sensors for measuring blood biochemical parameters

The most important sensor systems for measuring blood biochemical parameters using PVDV include:

1. Composite membranes (for example, PVDF-Nafion [34]) and fiber [35] blood glucose analyzers, mainly based on photoelectrochemical [36] and photoacoustic principles [37-40] with the main difference being either enzymatic or non-enzymatic detection principles [41-43]).

2. Blood ammonium analyzers, including POC-ones (which can be used at the patient’s bedside - “point-of-care”) [44].

3. Sensors for single physiologically relevant ions, for example, for potassium ions, based on the principle of a PVDF-HFP optode [45].

Implantable and longitudinally usable PVDF-based sensors in cardiometry, actuators for cardiovascular therapy and they “futuristic” problems

A fundamentally new biomedical engineering trend, actively developing in the 2000s-2010s, is the design of piezoelectric thin-film pressure sensors based on PVDF-TrFE for use in catheters [46,47]. Such electrically controlled systems are used in the treatment of different cardiovascular pathologies, including thrombosis and atherosclerosis [48].

Unfortunately, at the end of the 2010s. this research area has moved from the field of pure medicine to the field of robotics [49], which has raised many ethical questions that make constructive development of this topic impossible. Indeed, in the medial areas related to the functions of the human body, it is necessary to clearly distinguish between the obligate (from a physiological point of view) functions that require maintenance at the cost of intervention and installation of a permanent life-sustaining system into the human body (for example, artificial heart valves or insulin pumps for patients with diabetes), from the voluntary goals of postmodern medicine, lying in the area between plastic surgery and the “improvement of nature” of a person, leading to the creation of a “superman”, “cyberman”, etc., but in fact crippling a voluntary patient due to the irreversibility of the aging processes of both the human body and the active material implant.

In our opinion, such long-term solutions are acceptable only in the case of a decision between life and death, for example, in cardiac implantology. A similar remark concerns the prospects for the introduction of PVDF-based piezoelectric microrobots and nanorobots, which already have laboratory and sometimes veterinary-tested prototypes [50].

Biocompatibility problems in biomedical engineering of PVDF-based sensors: from hemocompatibility in angiogenesis and vascularization to biophysical or electrophysical biocompatibility of biomedical constructs

For such applications involving prolonged contact of PVDFbased material with biological tissues, biocompatibility is necessary. For the purposes of hematology, cardiac surgery, and vascular surgery, it is necessary to ensure hemocompatibility. There are currently many works on the hemocompatibility of PVDF and its copolymers, which proves the fundamental consistency of the attempts to use this material in contact with blood, both for extracorporeal applications and for implantable materials and devices [51-64]. There has been a certain increase in interest in this topic recently, leading to the appearance of many works on hemocompatibility of such compositions per year [65-68]. Conceptually, the level of work in this area remained unchanged for a long time, but the novel zwitterionic approach to hemocompatibility [69-74] appeared in the 2010s. has led to the new opportunities in this field.

In a broader sense, we should speak about tissue biocompatibility when ensuring angiogenesis and vascularization [75,76]. It is known that vascular grafts or vascular endothelial fouling implants using PVDF [77-85] have been actively introduced since the 1990s. Also in vascular surgery PVDF threads [86], fibrillar patches [87] and meshes [88,89] are already used, while in the future theranostics PVDF-containing medical piezoelectric textiles (in intraoperative, perioperative, and implantable forms [90,91]) will be widely applicable. It is obvious that for all such implantable materials and tissue-engineered structures based on them biocompatibility is a necessary prerequisite for their successful applicability in practice.

The crucial features of PVDF and its copolymers with piezoelectric properties for applications in cardiology and cardiovascular therapy include:

a) The possibility of using them as actuators and sensors simultaneously.

b) The possibility of a direct energy capture necessary for the sensor operation by its material (PVDF), for example, in contact with an artery [92,93].

c) Compliance with the acoustic impedance of water, which constitutes a significant volume of any living organism.

Consequently, to create hemodynamic and other cardiovascular sensors based on PVDF, it is possible to use biocompatibility criteria according to energy / electrophysiological, acoustic / electroacoustic and vibroacoustic criteria. It is noteworthy that, according to the latter criteria, the possibility of introducing PVDF in medical practice is much greater than that for the solid-state sensor and actuator materials, since PVDF has lower quality factor and good frequency tuning.

Prospective applications of PVDF in multi-angle measurement and mapping in angiography and optoacoustic tomography

It is known that position-sensitive sensors and ultrasonic sensors with angular resolution (including convex type ones) are also built on the basis of PVDF. Therefore, it seems possible to integrate ultrasonic and photoacoustic / optoacoustic positionsensitive detection methods with telemetric wireless signal transduction and recharging from the body’s own vibrational and electrophysical signals (using PVDF-based local implantable devices). A significant technical basis for the integration of photoacoustic methods of vascular analysis (angiography and optoacoustic tomography), focused ultrasound methods and ultrasound analysis of hemodynamics has been accumulated since the 1990s [94-105].

Still unresolved problems and approaches that have not yet been introduced into the mainstream medicine

All the remaining problems are technical in nature. The above described devices, including intraoperatively implanted telemetric systems - “chips” for monitoring the individual functions of the body’s blood supply, may appear in the nearest future, but their use also raises many bioethical problems, in particular the problem of personal biometric data (especially when they are transmitted over an open channel within the framework of the publicly accessible telemedicine). On the other hand, their appearance raises bioethical questions in terms of the minimally invasive/ non-invasive nature of the corresponding control methods [106] and the risk of vascular embolism or clamping of the blood tracts with the corresponding devices [107].

For more details the readers can refer to the recent review [108], the chapter from the book [109], as well as the series of reviews started by the article [110] (which has already received a number of positive reviews in biomedical and biotechnical periodicals [111,112]).

References

1. Kochervinskii VV (2021) [Applications of frerroelectric polymers in technology and medicine]. Palmarium Academic Publishing, Kishinew (Moldova) 204.
2. Li X, Panicker GV, Im JJ (2016) A study for the development of K-sound based automatic blood pressure device using PVDF film. In 2016 38th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) (pp. 255-258).
3. Sharma T, Naik S, Langevine J, Gill B, Zhang JX (2014) Aligned PVDF-TrFE nanofibers with high-density PVDF nanofibers and PVDF core–shell structures for endovascular pressure sensing. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 62(1): 188-195.
4. Chung CY, Luo CH, Tasi CC (2012) A Study of Pressure Measuring Instrument Based on PVDF. Sensor Letters 10(5-6): 1104-1108.
5. Brown RN, Brown NA (1980) A surface pressure transducer using PVDF film. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 68(S1): S68-S68.
6. Wang YJ, Sue CY (2019) Noninvasive Blood Pressure Measurement Using PVDF Fibers Fabricated by NFES and A Photoplethysmography Sensor. Journal of Automation and Control Engineering Vol 7(1): 41-45.
7. Tamez JP, Wang HY, Bhalla A, Guo R (2010) Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) piezoelectric for intravascular monitoring of blood pressure and arterial blood flow rate. Advances in Electroceramic Materials II 221: 231-243.
8. De Baêna MS, Minas G, Catarino SO (2019) PVDF piezoelectric flow sensor for velocity measurements aiming malaria diagnostics: A preliminary approach. In 2019 IEEE 6th Portuguese Meeting on Bioengineering (ENBENG) (pp. 1-4).
9. Christopher DA, Burns PN, Starkoski BG, Foster FS (1997) A high-frequency pulsed-wave Doppler ultrasound system for the detection and imaging of blood flow in the microcirculation. Ultrasound in medicine & biology 23(7): 997-1015.
10. Kurokawa Y, Abiko S, Watanabe K (1994) Noninvasive detection of intracranial vascular lesions by recording blood flow sounds. Stroke 25(2): 397-402.
11. Tang J, Zhou J, Carney PR, Jiang H (2014) Non-Invasive Real-time Photoacoustic Tomography of Hemodynamics in Freely Moving Rats. In Biomedical Optics (pp. BS4A-4).
12. Tang J, Xi L, Zhou J, Huang H, Zhang T, Carney PR, Jiang H (2015) Noninvasive high-speed photoacoustic tomography of cerebral hemodynamics in awake-moving rats. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism 35(8): 1224-1232.
13. Wang L, Yang J, Kennan J, Brzezinski A, Williamson CA, et al. (2022) Cerebral Blood Flow Tracking with Thin-Film Piezoelectric Sensing on an Intracranial Catheter and a Low-Order Hemodynamic Model. IFAC-PapersOnLine 55(37): 361-368.
14. Tang C, Liu Z, Hu Q, Jiang Z, Zheng M, et al. (2023) Unconstrained Piezoelectric Vascular Electronics for Wireless Monitoring of Hemodynamics and Cardiovascular Health. Small 20(3): 2304752.
15. Wang F, Tanaka M, Chonan S (2017) Development of a PVDF piezopolymer sensor for unconstrained in-sleep cardiorespiratory monitoring. In Twelfth International Conference on Adaptive Structures and Technologies (pp. 298-307).
16. Rajala S, Lekkala J (2010) Film-type sensor materials PVDF and EMFi in measurement of cardiorespiratory signals—A review. IEEE Sensors Journal 12(3): 439-446.
17. Laurila MM, Matsui H, Shiwaku R, Peltokangas M, Verho J, et al. (2019) A fully printed ultra-thin charge amplifier for on-skin biosignal measurements. IEEE Journal of the Electron Devices Society 7: 566-574.
18. Ansourian MN, Dripps JH, Jordan JR, Beattie GJ, Boddy K (1993) A transducer for detecting foetal breathing movements using PVDF film. Physiological measurement 14(3): 365.
19. Chang YM, Lee JS, Kim KJ (2007) Heartbeat monitoring technique based on corona poled PVDF film sensor for smart apparel application. Solid State Phenomena 124: 299-302.
20. Kim KJ, Chang YM, Yoon S, Kim HJ (2009) A novel piezoelectric PVDF film-based physiological sensing belt for a complementary respiration and heartbeat monitoring system. Integrated Ferroelectrics 107(1): 53-68.
21. Bifulco P, Gargiulo GD, d’Angelo G, Liccardo A, Romano M, et al. (2014) Monitoring of respiration, seismocardiogram and heart sounds by a PVDF piezo film sensor. Measurement 11: 786-789.
22. Hu D, Zhou N, Wang D, Xie C, Gao L (2019) Fingertip Pulse Wave Detection and Analysis Based on PVDF Piezoelectric Thin Film Sensor. In International Conference on Intelligent Robotics and Applications (pp. 26-36).
23. Zhou B, Wang XA, Li Q, Qiu C, He J, et al. (2021) Human pulse signal acquisition system based on PVDF piezoelectric film. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1924: 012019.
24. Toda M, Thompson ML (2006) Contact-type vibration sensors using curved clamped PVDF film. IEEE Sensors Journal 6(5): 1170-1177.
25. Hu D, Zhou N, Xie C, Gao L (2020) Non-invasive Measurement of Pulse Rate Variability Signals by a PVDF Pulse Sensor. In International Conference on Intelligent Robotics and Applications (pp. 52-64).
26. Sleva MZ (1994) Toward integrated, PVDF-TrFE Fresnel zone plate transducers for intravascular pulse-echo applications. Georgia Institute of Technology, Dissertation.
27. Moghadam BH, Hasanzadeh M, Simchi A (2020) Self-powered wearable piezoelectric sensors based on polymer nanofiber–metal–organic framework nanoparticle composites for arterial pulse monitoring. ACS Applied Nano Materials 3(9): 8742-8752.
28. Baek S, Lee Y, Baek J, Kwon J, Kim S, et al. (2021) Spatiotemporal measurement of arterial pulse waves enabled by wearable active-matrix pressure sensor arrays. ACS nano 16(1): 368-377.
29. Xin Y, Qi X, Qian C, Tian H, Ling Z, et al. (2014) A wearable respiration and pulse monitoring system based on PVDF piezoelectric film. Integrated Ferroelectrics 158(1): 43-51.
30. Yang T, Pan H, Tian G, Zhang B, Xiong D, et al. (2020) Hierarchically structured PVDF/ZnO core-shell nanofibers for self-powered physiological monitoring electronics. Nano Energy 72: 104706.
31. Zhang H, Zhang XS, Cheng X, Liu Y, Han M, et al. (2015) A flexible and implantable piezoelectric generator harvesting energy from the pulsation of ascending aorta: in vitro and in vivo studies. Nano Energy 12: 296-304.
32. Huang Z, Zhu Z, Yu W, Gao C, He B (2023) Feasibility Analysis of Novel Grinding Device with PVDF Sensor in Coronary Rotational Atherectomy. IEEE Sensors Journal 23(18): 21894-21902.
33. Joshi AB, Kalange AE, Bodas D, Gangal SA (2010) Simulations of piezoelectric pressure sensor for radial artery pulse measurement. Materials Science and Engineering: B 168(1-3): 250-253.
34. Chen D, Wang C, Chen W, Chen Y, Zhang JX (2015) PVDF-Nafion nanomembranes coated microneedles for in vivo transcutaneous implantable glucose sensing. Biosensors and Bioelectronics 74: 1047-1052.
35. Manesh KM, Santhosh P, Gopalan A, Lee KP (2007) Electrospun poly (vinylidene fluoride)/poly (aminophenylboronic acid) composite nanofibrous membrane as a novel glucose sensor. Analytical Biochemistry 360(2): 189-195.
36. Liu Y, Zhong L, Zhang S, Wang J, Liu Z (2022) An ultrasensitive and wearable photoelectrochemical sensor for unbiased and accurate monitoring of sweat glucose. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 354: 131204.
37. Kinnunen M, Myllylä R (2005) Effect of glucose on photoacoustic signals at the wavelengths of 1064 and 532 nm in pig blood and intralipid. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 38(15): 2654.
38. Myllylä R, Zhao Z, Kinnunen M (2008) Pulsed photoacoustic techniques and glucose determination in human blood and tissue. Handbook of Optical Sensing of Glucose in Biological Fluids and Tissues 419-455.
39. Sairam K, Renumadhavi CH (2015) A review on non-invasive blood glucometer based on photoacoustic method. J Int Innov Res Sci Technol 5: 1-9.
40. Bayrakli I, Erdogan YK (2018) Photo-acoustic sensor based on an inexpensive piezoelectric film transducer and an amplitude-stabilized single-mode external cavity diode laser for in vitro measurements of glucose concentration. Optics & Laser Technology 102: 180-183.
41. Xing Y, Gao G, Zhu G, Gao J, Ge Z, et al. (2014) A nonenzymatic electrochemical glucose sensor based on Ni (OH) 2-CNT-PVDF composite and its application in measuring serum glucose. Journal of The Electrochemical Society 161(5): B106.
42. Senthilkumar N, Babu KJ, Gnana kumar G, Kim AR, Yoo, DJ (2014) Flexible electrospun PVdF-HFP/Ni/Co membranes for efficient and highly selective enzyme free glucose detection. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 53(25): 10347-10357.
43. Puttananjegowda K, Takshi A, Thomas S (2021) Silicon carbide nanoparticles electrospun nanofibrous enzymatic glucose sensor. Biosensors and Bioelectronics 186: 113285.
44. Veltman TR, Tsai CJ, Gomez ON, Kanan MW, Chu G (2020) Point-of-Care analysis of blood ammonia with a gas-phase sensor. ACS sensors 5(8): 2415-2421.
45. Tenjimbayashi M, Komatsu H, Akamatsu M, Nakanishi W, Suzuki K, et al. (2016) Determination of blood potassium using a fouling-resistant PVDF–HFP-based optode. RSC Advances 6(17): 14261-14265.
46. Sharma T, Je SS, Gill B, Zhang JX (2012) Patterning piezoelectric thin film PVDF–TrFE based pressure sensor for catheter application. Sensors and Actuators A: physical 177: 87-92.
47. Sharma T, Aroom K, Naik S, Gill B, Zhang JX (2013) Flexible thin-film PVDF-TrFE based pressure sensor for smart catheter applications. Annals of biomedical engineering 41(4): 744-751.
48. Tajitsu Y (2006) Development of electric control catheter and tweezers for thrombosis sample in blood vessels using piezoelectric polymeric fibers. Polymers for advanced technologies 17(11‐12): 907-913.
49. Takashima K, Ota K, Yamamoto M, Takenaka M, Horie S, et al. (2019) Development of catheter-type tactile sensor composed of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film. ROBOMECH Journal 6(1): 1-11.
50. Liu W, Cheng X, Fu X, Stefanini C, Dario P (2011) Preliminary study on development of PVDF nanofiber-based energy harvesting device for an artery microrobot. Microelectronic engineering 88(8): 2251-2254.
51. Liu TY, Lin WC, Huang LY, Chen SY, Yang MC (2005) Surface characteristics and hemocompatibility of PAN/PVDF blend membranes. Polymers for Advanced Technologies 16(5): 413-419.
52. Chang Y, Shih YJ, Ko CY, Jhong JF, Liu YL, et al. (2011) Hemocompatibility of poly (vinylidene fluoride) membrane grafted with network-like and brush-like antifouling layer controlled via plasma-induced surface PEGylation. Langmuir 27(9): 5445-5455.
53. Ai F, Li H, Wang Q, Yuan WZ, Chen X, et al. (2012) Surface characteristics and blood compatibility of PVDF/PMMA membranes. Journal of Materials Science 47: 5030-5040.
54. Venault A, Wu JR, Chang Y, Aimar P (2014) Fabricating hemocompatible bi-continuous PEGylated PVDF membranes via vapor-induced phase inversion. Journal of membrane science 470: 18-29.
55. Venault A, Ballad MRB, Liu YH, Aimar P, Chang Y (2015) Hemocompatibility of PVDF/PS-b-PEGMA membranes prepared by LIPS process. Journal of Membrane Science 477: 101-114.
56. Jiang J, Zhang P, Zhu L, Zhu B, Xu Y (2015) Improving antifouling ability and hemocompatibility of poly (vinylidene fluoride) membranes by polydopamine-mediated ATRP. Journal of Materials Chemistry B 3(39): 7698-7706.
57. Shen X, Liu J, Feng X, Zhao Y, Chen L (2015) Preliminary investigation on hemocompatibility of poly (vinylidene fluoride) membrane grafted with acryloylmorpholine via ATRP. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A 103(2): 683-692.
58. Xu R, Feng Q, He Y, Yan F, Chen L, et al. (2017) Dual functionalized poly (vinylidene fluoride) membrane with acryloylmorpholine and argatroban to improve antifouling and hemocompatibility. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A 105(1): 178-188.
59. An Z, Li Y, Xu R, Dai F, Zhao Y, Chen L (2018) New insights in poly (vinylidene fluoride)(PVDF) membrane hemocompatibility: Synergistic effect of PVDF-g-(acryloyl morpholine) and PVDF-g-(poly (acrylic acid)-argatroban) copolymers. Applied Surface Science 457: 170-178.
60. An Z, Dai F, Wei C, Zhao Y, Chen L (2018) Polydopamine/cysteine surface modified hemocompatible poly (vinylidene fluoride) hollow fiber membranes for hemodialysis. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B: Applied Biomaterials 106(8): 2869-2877.
61. Zhang S, Cao J, Ma N, You M, Wang X, et al. (2018) Fast and facile fabrication of antifouling and hemocompatible PVDF membrane tethered with amino-acid modified PEG film. Applied Surface Science 428: 41-53.
62. Li JH, Ni XX, Zhang DB, Zheng H, Wang JB, et al. (2018) Engineering a self-driven PVDF/PDA hybrid membranes based on membrane micro-reactor effect to achieve super-hydrophilicity, excellent antifouling properties and hemocompatibility. Applied Surface Science 444: 672-690.
63. Nie S, Zeng J, Qin H, Xu X, Zeng J, Yang C, Luo J (2019) Improvement in the blood compatibility of polyvinylidene fluoride membranes via in situ cross‐linking polymerization. Polymers for Advanced Technologies 30(4): 923-931.
64. Liu C, Wang W, Li Y, Cui F, Xie C, et al. (2019) PMWCNT/PVDF ultrafiltration membranes with enhanced antifouling properties intensified by electric field for efficient blood purification. Journal of Membrane Science 576: 48-58.
65. Zięba M, Rusak T, Misztal T, Zięba W, Marcińczyk N, et al. (2022) Nitrogen plasma modification boosts up the hemocompatibility of new PVDF-carbon nanohorns composite materials with potential cardiological and circulatory system implants application. Biomaterials Advances 138: 212941.
66. Nazari S, Abdelrasoul A (2022) Impact of Membrane Modification and Surface Immobilization Techniques on the Hemocompatibility of Hemodialysis Membranes: A Critical Review. Membranes 12(11): 1063.
67. Zheng X, Ni C, Xiao W, Yu G, Li Y (2022) In vitro hemocompatibility and hemodialysis performance of hydrophilic ionic liquid grafted polyethersulfone hollow fiber membranes. Separation and Purification Technology 298: 121464.
68. Yi E, Kang HS, Lim SM, Heo HJ, Han D, et al. (2022) Superamphiphobic blood-repellent surface modification of porous fluoropolymer membranes for blood oxygenation applications. Journal of Membrane Science 648: 120363.
69. Sin MC, Chen SH, Chang Y (2014) Hemocompatibility of zwitterionic interfaces and membranes. Polymer journal 46(8): 436-443.
70. Venault A, Wei TC, Shih HL, Yeh CC, Chinnathambi A, et al. (2016) Antifouling pseudo-zwitterionic poly (vinylidene fluoride) membranes with efficient mixed-charge surface grafting via glow dielectric barrier discharge plasma-induced copolymerization. Journal of Membrane Science 516: 13-25.
71. Ma N, Cao J, Li H, Zhang Y, Wang H, et al. (2019) Surface grafting of zwitterionic and PEGylated cross-linked polymers toward PVDF membranes with ultralow protein adsorption. Polymer 167: 1-12.
72. Saadati S, Eduok U, Westphalen H, Abdelrasoul A, Shoker A, et al. (2021) In situ synchrotron imaging of human serum proteins interactions, molecular docking and inflammatory biomarkers of hemocompatible synthesized zwitterionic polymer coated-polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) dialysis membranes. Surfaces and Interfaces 27: 101505.
73. Chiao YH, Lin HT, Ang MBMY, Teow YH, Wickramasinghe SR, et al. (2023) Surface Zwitterionization via Grafting of Epoxylated Sulfobetaine Copolymers onto PVDF Membranes for Improved Permeability and Biofouling Mitigation. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 62(6): 2913-2923.
74. Nazari S, Abdelrasoul A (2022) Surface zwitterionization of hemodialysismembranesfor hemocompatibility enhancement and protein-mediated anti-adhesion: A critical review. Biomedical Engineering Advances 3: 100026.
75. Dương MT, Seifarth V, Artmann A, Artmann GM, Staat M (2018) Growth Modelling Promoting Mechanical Stimulation of Smooth Muscle Cells of Porcine Tubular Organs in a Fibrin-PVDF Scaffold. Biological, Physical and Technical Basics of Cell Engineering 209-232.
76. Mokhames Z, Rezaie Z, Ardeshirylajimi A, Basiri A, Taheri M, et al. (2021) VEGF-incorporated PVDF/collagen nanofibrous scaffold for bladder wall regeneration and angiogenesis. International Journal of Polymeric Materials and Polymeric Biomaterials 70(8): 521-529.
77. Okoshi T (1995) New concept of microporous structure in small diameter vascular prostheses. Artificial Organs 19(1): 27-31.
78. Okoshi T, Chen H, Soldani G, Galletti P, Goddard M (1992) Microporous small diameter PVDF-TrFE vascular grafts fabricated by a spray phase inversion technique. ASAIO J 38(3): M201-M206.
79. Yaguchi T, Funakubo A, Okoshi T, Noishiki Y, Fukui Y (2002) Fabrication of small-diameter polyurethane vascular grafts with microporous structure. Journal of Artificial Organs 5: 117-122.
80. Tschoeke B, Flanagan TC, Cornelissen A, Koch S, Roehl A, et al. (2008) Development of a composite degradable/nondegradable tissue‐engineered vascular graft. Artificial organs 32(10): 800-809.
81. Ahmed F, Dutta NK, Zannettino A, Vandyke K, Choudhury NR (2014) Engineering interaction between bone marrow derived endothelial cells and electrospun surfaces for artificial vascular graft applications. Biomacromolecules 15(4): 1276-1287.
82. Wolf F, Schnöring H, Chalabi K, Mertens ME, Morgenroth A, et al. (2015) In-vivo Monitoring of Tissue-Engineered Vascular Grafts. The Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgeon 63(S 01): OP110.
83. Cafarelli A, Losi P, Salgarella AR, Barsotti MC, Di Cioccio IB, et al. (2019) Small-caliber vascular grafts based on a piezoelectric nanocomposite elastomer: Mechanical properties and biocompatibility. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials 97: 138-148.
84. Fernández CA, Wolf F, Rütten S, Schmitz Rode T, Rodríguez Cabello JC, et al. (2019) Small caliber compliant vascular grafts based on elastin-like recombinamers for in situ tissue engineering. Frontiers in bioengineering and biotechnology 7: 340.
85. Rama E, Mohapatra SR, Melcher C, Nolte T, Dadfar SM, et al. (2022) Monitoring the remodeling of biohybrid tissue‐engineered vascular grafts by multimodal molecular imaging. Advanced Science 9(10): 2105783.
86. Laroche G, Marois Y, Guidoin R, King MW, Martin L, et al. (1995) Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) as a biomaterial: from polymeric raw material to monofilament vascular suture. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research 29(12): 1525-1536.
87. Arumugam R, Srinadhu ES, Subramanian B, Nallani S (2019) β-PVDF based electrospun nanofibers–A promising material for developing cardiac patches. Medical Hypotheses 122 31-34.
88. Klinge U, Klosterhalfen B, Öttinger AP, Junge K, Schumpelick V (2002) PVDF as a new polymer for the construction of surgical meshes. Biomaterials 23(16) 3487-3493.
89. Junge K, Klinge U, Rosch R, Stumpf M, Klosterhalfen B, et al. (2003) PVDF: a New Alternative? In Meshes: Benefits and Risks (pp. 118-129).
90. Su Y, Chen C, Pan H, Yang Y, Chen G, et al. (2021) Muscle fibers inspired high‐performance piezoelectric textiles for wearable physiological monitoring. Advanced Functional Materials 31(19): 2010962.
91. Houis S, Engelhardt EM, Wurm F, Gries T (2010) Application of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) as a biomaterial in medical textiles. In Medical and Healthcare Textiles (pp. 342-352).
92. Liu W, Cheng X, Fu X, Stefanini C, Dario P (2011) Preliminary study on development of PVDF nanofiber based energy harvesting device for an artery microrobot. Microelectronic engineering 88(8): 2251-2254.
93. Fadhil N, Saber D, Patra P (2013) Energy harvesting using nana scale dual layers PVDF film for blood artery. In 2013 IEEE Long Island Systems, Applications and Technology Conference (LISAT) (pp. 1-6).
94. Hoelen CG, Pongers R, Hamhuis G, de Mul FF, Greve J (1998) Photoacoustic blood cell detection and imaging of blood vessels in phantom tissue. SPIE 3196: 142-153.
95. Hoelen CG, De Mul FF, Pongers R, Dekker A (1998) Three-dimensional photoacoustic imaging of blood vessels in tissue. Optics letter 23(8) 648-650.
96. Vaezy S, Martin R, Yaziji H, Kaczkowski P, Keilman G, et al. (1998) Hemostasis of punctured blood vessels using high-intensity focused ultrasound. Ultrasound in medicine & biology 24(6): 903-910.
97. Kolkman RG, Hondebrink E, Steenbergen W, van Leeuwen TG, de Mul FF (2004) Photoacoustic imaging of blood vessels with a double-ring sensor featuring a narrow angular aperture. Journal of biomedical optics 9(6): 1327-1335.
98. Kolkman RG, Klaessens JH, Hondebrink E, Hopman JC, de Mul, et al. (2004) Photoacoustic determination of blood vessel diameter. Physics in Medicine & Biology 49(20): 4745.
99. Bulletti A, Giannelli P, Calzolai M, Capineri L (2016) An integrated acousto/ultrasonic structural health monitoring system for composite pressure vessels. IEEE transactions on ultrasonics, ferroelectrics, and frequency control 63(6): 864-873.
100. Subochev PV, Postnikova AS, Koval’chuk AV, Turchin IV (2017) Biomedical Optoacoustic Tomograph Based on a Cylindrical Focusing PVDF Antenna. Radiophysics and Quantum Electronics 60: 233-239.
101. Jia D, Chao J, Li S, Zhang H, Yan Y, Liu T, Sun Y (2017) A fiber Bragg grating sensor for radial artery pulse waveform measurement. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 65(4): 839-846.
102. Wang YJ, Sue CY (2019) Noninvasive Blood Pressure Measurement Using PVDF Fibers Fabricated by NFES and A Photoplethysmography Sensor. 7(1).
103. Kurnikov AA, Pavlova KG, Orlova AG, Khilov AV, Perekatova VV, et al. (2021) Broadband (100 kHz–100 MHz) ultrasound PVDF detectors for raster-scan optoacoustic angiography with acoustic resolution. Quantum Electronics 51(5): 383.
104. Subochev P, Dean Ben XL, Chen Z, Orlova A, Razansky D (2021) PVDF spherical matrix array for high resolution cerebral optoacoustic micro-angiography of rodents. In European Conference on Biomedical Optics (pp. ETu4D-6).
105. Tang C, Liu Z, Hu Q, Jiang Z, Zheng M, et al. (2023) Unconstrained Piezoelectric Vascular Electronics for Wireless Monitoring of Hemodynamics and Cardiovascular Health. Small 20(3): e2304752.
106. Qasaimeh MA, Sokhanvar S, Dargahi J, Kahrizi M (2008) PVDF-based microfabricated tactile sensor for minimally invasive surgery. Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems 18(1): 195-207.
107. Tamez JP, Wang HY, Bhalla A, Guo R (2010) Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) piezoelectric for intravascular monitoring of blood pressure and arterial blood flow rate. Advances in Electroceramic Materials II 221: 231-243.
108. Kochervinskii VV, Gradov OV, Gradova MA (2022) Fluorine-containing ferroelectric polymers and their application in engineering and biomedicine. Russian Chemical Reviews 91(11): RCR5037.
109. Gradov OV, Gradova MA, Kochervinskij VV (2021) Biomimetic biocompatible ferroelectric polymer materials with an active response for implantology and regenerative medicine. In Organic Ferroelectric Materials and Applications, WP Series in Electronic and Optical Materials pages 571-619.
110. Gradov OV, Gradova MA, Kochervinskii VV (2023) Biocompatible biomimetic polymer structures with an active response for implantology and regenerative medicine. Part I: Basic principles of the active implant’s biocompatibility. Siberian Journal of Life Sciences and Agriculture 15(1): 346-377.
111. (2023) Studies from Semenov Federal Research Center for Chemical Physics Yield New Data on Regenerative Medicine (Art.: Biocompatible Biomimetic Polymer Structures with An Active Response for Implantology And Regenerative Medicine Part I: Basic Principles ...). Biotech Week Issue 578.
112. (2023) Studies from Semenov Federal Research Center for Chemical Physics Yield New Data on Regenerative Medicine. Gale OneFile: Health and Medicine (Farmington Hills, Michigan).